3. METODOLOGÍA
4.5 DISEÑO DE LA CORRECCION DEL FACTOR DE POTENCIA
Land productivity in sub Saharan Africa (SSA) has remained low due to declining soil fertility resulting from many years of nutrient loss through crop harvest as well as through processes such as soil erosion and leaching (Sanchez 2002). The amount of major nutrients (nitrogen‐ N, phosphorus‐ P and potassium‐ K) lost far exceeds the amounts replaced through processes such as fertilizer and manure application, natural deposition and biological fixation. Smaling et al., (1997) estimated that farming systems in the East African Highlands lose nutrients at rates of 130 kg N, 5 kg P and 25 kg K ha/yr. Statistics indicate that yields of major cereals (maize, millet, sorghum) in smallholder farming systems in Kenya average <1 t/ha compared to reported yields of 9 t/ha in highland environments (KARI 2005). On the other hand, fertilizer use among smallholder farming systems is low. Fertilizer use in SSA is estimated to average 9 kg of nutrients per hectare compared to 86 kg/ha, 104 kg/ha and 142 kg/ha for Latin America, South Asia and Southeast Asia, respectively (Crawford et al. 2006). Equally, production of organic resources in the smallholder systems is low because of the already impoverished soils. Often the organics are not returned to the farms due to other competing uses such as roofing, animal feed (Ikombo et al. 1994) and fuel (Tittonell et al. 2005; KIPPRA 2010) or are burnt during land clearing (Muasya 1995). In Uasin Gishu district, for example, 4 to 6 t/ha of crop residue is burnt each season to facilitate land clearing and ploughing for the subsequent cropping season (Muasya 1995).
With increasing land degradation and varied management practices, there is high heterogeneity in soil properties across the cropping systems of many smallholder farms (Prudencio 1993; Smaling and Braun 1996; Tittonell 2003). According to Tittonell et al., (2005) and Tittonell et al., (2007) soil fertility heterogeneity at farm scale may be associated with topography, soil types, land degradation intensities, sharp physical discontinuities, land‐use history or distance from the homestead and livestock
facilities. This heterogeneity results in a mosaic pattern of yields across the landscape which therefore requires adoption of different land management practices depending on the conditions of a particular site. Farmers are not interested in the soil properties per se, but the implication of the soil status on ultimate productivity. Yield mapping is therefore a logical starting point for site‐specific nutrient management and also effective for the identification of potential management zones (Boydell and McBratney 2002).
Management zones can be defined as sub‐regions within a landscape, farm or plot with homogenous yield‐limiting factors (Doerge 1999). Variation in soil physical, chemical and biological properties are considered the most important factors responsible for yield variability across the landscapes (Ping et al. 2005). The magnitude and balance of the different soil properties result in varying nutrient supply and uptake potential thereby affecting ultimate crop productivity. Hence, understanding the variation of intrinsic soil fertility is the key factor for site‐specific fertilizer and soil amendment applications as well as for planning effective soil sampling (Mann et al. 2011a; Mann et al. 2011b).
Site‐specific management zones can be delineated based on variability in color of bare soil, farmers’ perception of field topography and their knowledge of past production practices (Corbeels et al. 2000; Khosla et al. 2002; Fleming et al. 2004; Mairura et al. 2007; Mairura et al. 2008). For example, Mulla and Bhatti (1997) observed that low‐, medium‐ and high‐organic‐matter zones were found to correspond with top, middle and bottom slope landscape position, and that there were increasing grain yields with increasing soil organic matter content. Other studies have used variation in soil physical properties, nutrient levels, and water content to define the management zones (Gaston et al. 2001). Gaston et al. (2001) reported that that variability in clay and soil carbon influenced the location and density of weeds.
Classifying fields into different levels of productivity management zones is a concept that is rapidly being adopted as a management tool for soils especially under precision agriculture systems (Doerge 1999; Khosla et al. 2002; Ping et al. 2005). This is in recognition of the high variability in crop responses at farm level as well as the fact
that most farmers cannot afford application of recommended rates of fertilizer while production of organic inputs at farm level is limited. Knowledge about management zones can help develop prescription maps that can allow the land users to apply different rates of fertilizer at different locations of a field thereby reducing production costs and maximizing returns on investment by reducing fertilizer application to unproductive areas of fields where nutrient uptake is low and losses may occur (Mulla and Bhatti 1997; Mann et al. 2011a; Mann et al. 2011b). This knowledge on management zones can also help when making decisions about the land use in poor or degraded areas. These degraded areas can either be excluded from production or possibly improved by applying appropriate amendments.
Soil fertility research has generated interpretation guidelines for evaluating the measured soil properties (Sanchez et al. 1982; Tekalign and Haque 1991; Okalebo et al. 2002; FAO 2006, 2008). These guidelines can be used to group soils as fertile or not fertile or as degraded or non‐degraded as a first step towards delineating the management zones. Such guidelines serve to standardize and facilitate comparison of results across regions especially when determining recommendation domains for particular soil fertility management technologies. Further, estimates of crop yields as a function of availability of nutrients in the soil can be done using models (Burrough 1989; Janssen et al. 1990; Lal et al. 1993; Smaling and Janssen 1993; Mulder 2000). QUEFTS (Quantitative Evaluation of the Fertility of Tropical Soils) is one such model that was designed for the quantitative prediction of maize yields on unfertilized tropical soils, although it can be adjusted for other crops and soils (Janssen et al. 1990). This model was validated in Kenya by Smaling and Janssen (1993) and adapted so that it could be used to estimate yield response to fertilization with N, P and K. This way, results from QUEFTS modeling can be used to complement crop response data in nutrient omission plots (Witt and Dobermann 2002). In this way, the model could contribute to a more efficient use of mineral fertilizer at both regional and farm level (Smaling and Janssen 1993). The model combines both empirical and theoretical approaches to modeling; thus it is based on data produced through observation or experimentation as well as on theories of known physical or physiological relations of
crop growth (Mulder 2000). The model’s main advantage is its simplicity, since it uses relatively standard soil data commonly analyzed in routine laboratory procedures. The ability of QUEFTS to predict nutrient supply, nutrient uptake and crop productivity as well as to establish site‐specific fertilizer application makes the use of this model a good starting point for determining management zones in the smallholder cropping systems in SSA.
The study therefore assessed nutrient supply, nutrient uptake and crop productivity potentials across smallholder farming systems in Western Kenya using QUEFTS model.
7.2 Methodology