In example (2), after being shown the pictures of one snake, the child replied nɯ̀ŋ sɔ̌ɔŋ ‘one two’ instead of using nɯ̀ŋ tua ‘one CL’. The child used the consecutive number sɔ̌ɔŋ ‘two’ in the position of the classifier. When the researchers asked them “how many snakes in this picture?” they replied nɯ̀ŋ ‘one’. After the researchers asked “one what?”, they replied again with nɯ̀ŋ sɔ̌ɔŋ ‘one two’.
(4) s
ɔ̌ɔŋ nɯ̀ŋ sɔ̌ɔŋ sɔ̌ɔŋtwo
one
two
two
‘2 balls’ (3.6 yrs.)
This strategy can be seen as the early stage of Tuaychareon’s (1984) trial and error strategy at 4.6 - 5.0 years. At this stage, children played with numbers. They tended to pair up the numbers in each set and start counting them. For example, in (4) when two balls were shown, they count sɔ̌ɔŋ nɯ̀ŋ ‘two one’ and sɔ̌ɔŋ sɔ̌ɔŋ ‘two two’. The first number in each set designates the number while the last number refers to a classifier.
C. Coding strategy
For this strategy, the children use their own specific code in the position of a classifier. (5) sìi ʨèt kâo sɔ̌ɔŋ
four seven nine two ‘4 bananas’ (3.4 yrs.)
For this step, the children learn more numbers and are able to create the group of number by themselves. When they were asked about number and classifier, they knew that the number must be followed by something. In example (5), a child counts sìi ‘four’ for four bananas. When asked “how many bananas?” he replied sìi ‘four’. Then, the researchers asked sìi ʔàraj ‘four what’ to which he replied sìi ʨèt kâo sɔ̌ɔŋ ‘four seven nine two’. The series of number following the first number may reveal the realization of classifier position in children.
D. Message strategy
This strategy refers to the use of a short message. (6) hùnjon nɯ̀ŋ ʨʰɔ̂ɔp lên dâaj Robot one like play can ‘One robot that I can play with’ (3.11 yrs.)
It is the step after the counting number strategy. For this step, they counted the number followed by a short message. The children already started acquiring classifiers but they might not know how to use them. They knew that the number had to be followed by something. It can be seen that children realize the classifier position after the number.
In example (6), after seeing a picture of one robot, the child replied nɯ̀ŋ ‘one’. Then he was asked nɯ̀ŋ ʔàraj ‘one what’, he replied hùnjon nɯ̀ŋ ʨʰɔ̂ɔp lên dâaj ‘robot one can play’ which means ‘a robot that I can play with’. In this case, children chose to add a post-nominal modifier in the position of classifiers.
4.1.2 Classifier stage
At this stage, the children use classifiers by means of various strategies. A. Noun repetition strategy
The noun repetition strategy is where the head noun is copied to be the classifier. (7) rɯa nɯ̀ŋ rɯa
ship one ship ‘one ship’ (3.7 yrs.)
(8) pʰɯ̂ən sìi pʰɯ̂ən pʰɯ̂ən friend four friend friend ‘4 friends’ (4.10 yrs.)
This strategy is similar to Tuaycharoen’s (1984) where the noun repetition strategy was found to be at the age of 2.0 -2.6 years. However, the present research found the noun repetition stage to be at the age of 3. The children used noun repetition when they did not know the specific classifiers of the nouns. This is the simplest strategy. Example (7) shows the noun repetition strategy of rɯa ‘ship’. In Example (8), a child used noun repetition with the human noun pʰɯ̂ən ‘friend’. The child reduplicated the noun pʰɯ̂ən ‘friend’ to identify plurality of the head noun as pʰɯ̂ən sìi pʰɯ̂ən pʰɯ̂ən ‘friends’. The child didn’t use the general classifier kʰon ‘person’.
B. General classifier strategy
The use of general classifiers is a major strategy of the children (Carpenter 1987) because it might be the most basic pattern and the children can acquire it quite early. General classifiers in Thai are ʔan for things, tua for animals and kʰon for humans and human-like figures. However, the children may use these 3 general classifiers in their own way.
(9) puu sɔ̌ɔŋ ʔan crab two CL ‘two crabs’ (3.3 yrs.) (10) mǎa sɔ̌ɔŋ tua dog two CL ‘two dogs’ (3.0 yrs.) (11) naaŋfáa sɔ̌ɔŋ kʰon angel two CL ‘2 angels’ (4.6 yrs.)
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These general classifiers were used by the children 3-6 years of age. Particularly, the classifier ʔan was most frequently found. The children acquired these general classifiers (ʔan/tua/kʰon) before employing other strategies.
In example (9), the classifier ʔan was used with animals for a child at the age of 3.3 years. This child used ʔan for almost all categories (things, animals, vehicles, etc.) In example (10), the classifier tua was used with two dogs and in example (11), the classifier kʰon was used with angels because they look like humans.
C. General noun strategy
In this strategy, a noun referring to the basic category of the given noun is used as a classifier, for example the basic noun pʰàk ‘vegetable’ is used as a classifier for the nouns kʰɛɛròt ‘carrot’ and kʰâopʰôt ‘corn’.
(12) kʰɛɛròt nɯ̀ŋ pʰàk carrot one CL ‘one carrot’ (5.4 yrs.)
(13) kʰâopʰôt sɔ̌ɔŋ pʰàk corn two CL ‘two corns’ (5.4 yrs.)
This strategy represents the child’s categorization of the given noun, for example in examples (12) and (13), a child categorizes carrot and corn as vegetables, using pʰàk ‘vegetable’ as the classifier for carrot and corn. Tuaycharoen (1984) called this type of strategy over-extension. The present research found this strategy to be used at the age between 4.0 and 4.6 years.
D. Shape strategy
The shape strategy refers to the use of classifiers representing the shape of the entity referred to by the given noun, for example, the classifier kɔ̂ɔn which is normally used with a sphere-shaped entity is used with the noun tʰúrian
‘durian’ rather than the more appropriate classifier lûuk/
pʰǒn.(14) tʰúrian nɯ̀ŋ kɔ̂ɔn durian 1 CL ‘one durian’ (5.3 yrs.) (15) lûukbɔɔn sɔ̌ɔŋ woŋklom ball 2 CL ‘2 balls’ (5.4 yrs.)
In (14), a child used the classifier kɔ̂ɔn ‘lump’ with tʰúrian ‘durian’ rather than the more appropriate classifier, lûuk /pʰǒn which is generally used for a sphere-shaped fruit .
The present study found this strategy to be used at the age 4.5-5.5 years. In Thai, there are several classifiers used with rounded entities, each of which has to be used with a certain set of nouns, for example, the classifier lûuk is normally used with fruits and ball-like entities, while the classifier kɔ̂ɔn ‘lump’ is normally used with stones, ice cubes, ice-cream scoops and clouds. Children at an early age may not use them appropriately. In example (15), a child used the classifier woŋklom ‘circle’ with lûuk bɔɔn ‘ball’. Again, the specific classifier for ball is lûuk /bai.
E. Specific part strategy
This strategy refers to the use of a noun referring to a specific part of the given object as a classifier, for example, in (16) and (17) the child used the noun kʰǎa
‘leg’ and
kʰɛ̌ɛn ‘arm’ which are observable parts of the objects kâoʔîi‘chair’ and hùnjon ‘robot’ as their classifiers respectively.
(16) kâoʔî sɔ̌ɔŋ kʰǎa chair two CL
‘two chairs’ (two legs) (3.7 yrs.) (17) hùnjon nɯ̀ŋ kʰɛ̌ɛn robot one CL
‘one robot’ (one arm) (4.6 yrs.) (18) mɔɔtɤ̂ɤsai nɯ̀ŋ kʰrɯ̂aŋ motorcycle one CL
‘one motorcycle’ (one engine) (4.5 yrs.) (19) naalíkaa nɯ̀ŋ kʰrɯ̂aŋ
clock one CL
‘one clock’ (one engine) (4.6 yrs.)
Besides the observable parts, children may use nouns referring to salient parts of the given object as its classifier, for example, in (18-19), the child used the noun kʰrɯ̂aŋ ‘engine’ which is the salient part which may not be clearly observable from the outside of the objects mɔɔtɤ̂ɤsai ‘motorcycle’ and naalíkaa ‘clock’ as their classifier. This strategy reveals that children’s selection of a specific classifier might be influenced by the most salient parts of the given object.
F. Specific classifier strategy
This strategy refers to the use of certain specific classifiers which are not general classifiers, repeated head nouns or general nouns and do not represent shape and specific parts of the given objects. This group of classifiers has to be used with a specific set of objects, for example (20), the classifier rɯən is specifically used with the noun naalíkaa ‘clock’.
(20) naalíkaa nɯ̀ŋ rɯən clock one CL ‘one clock’ (4.5 yrs.)
Because of its specific use which cannot be deduced from the physical feature of the given noun, it is hypothesized that the children might be trained to use them appropriately. This strategy is found rather late, at the age between 4 and 5 years.
G. Specific reason strategy
By this strategy, children may use their own specific reasons in selecting a classifier for the given object. The chosen form may not conform to the aforementioned strategies as in the following examples. (21) kʰrɯ̂aŋbIn nɯ̀ŋ fáa
plane one CL ‘one plane’ (one sky) (4.10 yrs.) (22) kâoʔî sɔ̌ɔŋ máai
chair two CL
‘two chairs’ (two wood) (5.2 yrs.)
In example (21), a child used the noun fáa ‘sky’ as the classifier of the object kʰrɯ̂aŋbin ‘plane’. When asked, the child explained that he used the classifier fáa ‘sky’ because the plane flies in the sky. In example (22), the child used the noun máai ‘wood’ for the object kâoʔî ‘chair’. Even though the
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picture shown to him was not of a wooden chair, the child explained that the chair that he knows of is made of wood, so he would like to use the classifier máai ‘wood’ with the chair. In other words, children may use their own specific reasons when using classifiers.
4.2 Order
The non-classifier stage and classifier stage begin at the age of three but the non-classifier stage ends roughly at the age of four. In the non-classifier stage at the age of three, the most frequently found strategy is the coding strategy, found in 7 children out of 12 (58.33%), followed by the number counting strategy, found in 5 children out of 12 (41.67%), the message strategy, found in 3 children out of 12 (25%), and the noun reduplication strategy, found in 2 children out of 12 (16.67%). These strategies disappeared at the age of 4 except for the coding and message strategies.
Table 3: Stages of the acquisition of classifiers and strategies
Strategies 3.0-3.11 yrs. (12 children) (100%) 4.1-4.10 yrs. (12 children) (100%) 5.1-6.0 yrs. (13 children) (100%) Non-classifier Stage
Noun Reduplication Strategy 2 (16.67%)
0 (0%)
0 (0%)
Number Counting Strategy 5
(41.67%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) Coding Strategy 7 (58.33%) 1 (8.33%) 0 (0%) Message Strategy 3 (25%) 1 (8.33%) 0 (0%) Classifier Stage
Noun repetition Strategy 4
(33.33%)
5 (41.67%)
7 (53.85%) General Classifiers Strategy 12
(100%) 12 (100%) 13 (100%) Shape Strategy 2 (16.67%) 10 (83.33%) 13 (100%)
General Noun Strategy 0
(0%)
0 (0%)
2 (15.38%)
Specific Part Strategy 2
(16.67%)
2(16.67%) 3
(23.08%)
Specific Reason Strategy 1
(8.33%)
10 (83.33%)
2 (15.38%) Specific Classifier Strategy 2
(16.67%)
8 (66.67%)
13 (100%) At the classifier stage, six strategies were found at the age of three. Table 3 shows that the most frequent strategy used was the general classifier strategy. A hundred percent of the children at all ages preferred to use general classifiers. For children aged 4 and 5, the shape strategy is the second most used strategy while the specific classifier strategy is the third most used strategy. This shows that children acquire classifiers better as they grow older. It is interesting to note that the specific classifiers are those classifiers children learned and were taught by adults. It is obvious that they understand these classifiers and make better use of this strategy when they become older. The noun repetition strategy increases in usage following the children’s age. However, the general noun strategy, specific part strategy and specific reason strategy are strategies used by a small number of children and seem to depend on the individual. What is interesting is ten children (83.33%) at the age of 4 use the specific reason strategy and this strategy is dropped by the age of five. It is noted that children aged 4 tend to
use a variety of classifiers. It is possible to compare the specific reason strategy for children at the age of four with the trial and error stage as stated by Tuaycharoen (1984).
5 Conclusion
In conclusion, the acquisition of classifiers can be divided into two stages: the non-classifier stage and the classifier stage. All strategies found in the non-classifier stage end by the age of four. In the classifier stage, children at all ages prefer to use general classifiers. Moreover, all children at each age use the general classifiers the most. The use of the noun repetition strategy, shape strategy and specific classifier strategy increases as children grow older. The specific strategy using specific classifiers needed to be taught to children such as the classifiers for houses and ships. Some strategies, however, seem to be idiosyncratic. These strategies are the general noun strategy, specific part strategy and specific reason strategy. Thus, the order of classifier acquisition is not clear-cut. More detailed investigation may shed light on this matter.
References
Balvin, Edith. 2009. Cambridge Handbook of Child Language. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Carpenter, K. 1987. How Children Learn to Classify Nouns in Thai. Ph.D. Dissertation, Stanford University.
Clark, Eve V. 2009. First Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rungrojsuwan, Sorabud.2003. First Words: Communicative Development of 9- to 24-month-old Thai Children. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Linguistics, Graduate School. Bangkok:
Chulalongkorn University.
Susan Goldin-Meadow, Martin E.P. Seligman Rochel Gelman.1976. Language in the two year old. University of Pennsylvania.
Tuaycharoen, P. 1984. Developmental strategies in the acquisition of classifiers in Thai.In Selected Papers from the international Symposium on Language and Linguistics, ed. by P. Tuaycharoen et al., 203-211. Chiang Mai University.
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