therapeutic potential of music has led researchers to argue that music could be used to support development of key cognitive and social learning skills for children
experiencing learning difficulty (Kraus & Chandrasekaran, 2010; Mather, 2007, 2013; Overy, 2000, 2003, 2010; Rabinowitch, Cross & Burnard, 2013; Wan et al., 2011). This definition and use however extends beyond traditional notions of music education, where the processes of musical learning are taken for granted by musicians who regard them as necessary skills to perform a particular piece of music. However, as has been shown, critically, these skills and processes appear to be involved in key areas of learning, which educators are seeking to develop and support in children with SEND.
2.12.1 Musical Education, Training, Learning, Therapy or Intervention?
Snowling and Hulme (2011) define a “well founded intervention” (p. 1) as one based on sound theory, knowledge of how skills develop and how best to promote them inchildren experiencing difficulty mastering such skills. The evidence presented here indicates how a greater understanding of the key sensory processes involved in
cognitive, emotional and social development might be harnessed to wider effect through a child’s musical development. However, understanding how best to promote these skills within the non-musical context of the learning support setting or mainstream classroom depends on how processes of musical learning are defined and employed in practice.
As alluded to above, music education or training is normally concerned with the development of musical knowledge, skills and understanding for their own intrinsic value. This discussion suggests a wider purpose and vision of musical learning in mainstream schools. Ockelford (2000) makes a similar assertion, proposing a
theoretical model of music education for children with severe, profound and multiple learning difficulties in special education, consisting of two strands: “music in its own right” (p. 200) and “music to inform wider learning and development” (p. 203). He highlights the considerable potential for overlap between educational and therapeutic aims, when use of music extends beyond the therapeutic aim of fostering wellbeing into promoting learning and development; a focus he considers to be more educational in nature. Interestingly, Ockelford suggests, “both therapy and education are distinct from
“training”, which he argues, “is solely concerned with the acquisition of externally determined skills” (2000, p. 215).
Outwardly, music-making in music therapy, education and training may look very similar but in fact may have different objectives, of which the participant may or may not be aware. This raises a number of important questions about how music is thought about, defined and used in different settings, and about who might be best suited to deliver music as a learning support resource or intervention. Indeed, music therapists working in schools report that one of the primary challenges they face is head teachers’ lack of understanding about the different aims of music therapy and education (Bunt, 2003).
Music therapy, historically, has focussed on clinical and therapeutic settings, but is nevertheless gaining educational recognition, such that some English local authorities have given status and funding support to music therapists similar to that enjoyed by educational psychologists (Bunt, 2003). A recent review of UK music therapy research and clinical practice with children in mainstream education (Carr & Wigram, 2009) found that 25% of UK music therapists work in school or educational settings, often in collaboration with other agencies such as social services and child and adolescent mental health services (CAMHS). Importantly, the review identified a need for musical intervention in mainstream education, but which is hampered by lack of research not only in reporting existing work in mainstream settings, but in determining how this might be best achieved.
Interestingly, US music therapists and researchers have called for greater collaboration between music therapists and music educators working in mainstream schools, and between music educators, special needs teams and the families of children with SEND (Fitzgerald, 2006; McCord & Fitzgerald, 2006; McCord & Watts, 2006; Montgomery & Martinson, 2006; Patterson, 2003). Their experiential accounts provide valuable
detailed advice as to how this might be achieved in practice and how hurdles of limited time, ways of working and a lack of specialist SEND knowledge and access to
individual education plans can be overcome. They also provide inspiring case studies of the positive impact such collaboration can have. Reports from children and parents indicate the influential role music educators play in providing transformative
opportunities for often marginalised children to use musical talents and interest alongside their peers in school bands to forge new friendships and develop a sense of belonging and musical accomplishment previously thought impossible. Taken together,
these different distinctions challenge standard conceptions of musical education in mainstream schools. They also provide a useful starting framework to help distinguish the fine line between an explicit use of music to support non-musical learning amongst children with SEND and the implicit outcomes of music-making, education and
experience.
2.13 Summary
This chapter has reviewed a considerable body of multi-disciplinary evidence that identifies important overlaps between the processes involved in musical learning and critical non-musical learning skills, through the musical development of auditory
function. Collectively, such theoretical, empirical and qualitative research is valuable in increasing and clarifying the processes involved in musical learning and engagement and their relationship to other areas of learning and the factors, which drive or mediate wider benefits. Nevertheless, this review has also emphasised the need for rigour in the design and interpretation of empirical studies. The discussion has highlighted a number of methodological difficulties and the limitations of a largely correlational, empirical evidence base, which restricts the ability to infer a causal relationship between musical training and wider benefits. Moreover, whilst the effect of instrumental music training on specific aspects of brain function appears to be generally accepted, inferences that musicians’ ability to outperform non-musicians on a range of cognitive tasks is due solely to the effects of musical training alone continues to be a subject of considerable debate and investigation. Instead, with the exception of the effect of musical training on intelligence where a causal relationship has been identified, it is argued that musicians’ superior cognitive performance reflects underlying genetic pre-dispositions, musical aptitude and/or personality traits; or is indicative of improvements or changes in mediating factors such as phonological awareness, levels of arousal and mood, and individual listening preferences, which then lead to improvements in other aspects of learning where causal relationships have been established.
More broadly, research evidence indicates that such benefits cannot be assumed to be automatic and may depend on the choice and accessibility of the chosen pedagogical approach, which may emphasise the development of particular musical skills over others; the nature of the musical learning context; and whether the musical learning occurs in addition to other learning as an extra-curricular activity. Equally, human factors such as educators’ musical confidence and knowledge, particularly in respect of
its use in relation to children with SEND, and attitudes towards music’s place within the school curriculum more generally may affect access to high quality musical learning opportunities. Thus, there is a growing awareness amongst researchers of the need to take account of a wide range of individual and environmental factors and the need to investigate the relationship between music and its wider potential in real world settings. Qualitative and empirical research evidence investigating the use of music in a range of settings can make a positive contribution to this aim.
This review has endeavoured to adopt a holistic approach across a range of
experimental, empirical and qualitative evidence drawn from studies conducted in laboratory and real world settings. It has highlighted how simple songs, rhythm and movement can provide a framework to scaffold the development of essential learning skills, social interaction and self-development through informal interactions between child and caregiver, through social music-making activities or more formally through music education and a child’s musical development. Intervention studies indicate how such aims might be achieved over short periods of time compatible with the school calendar as part of school learning support programmes. However, despite such
evidence little research attention has focussed on the actual experience of using music in the mainstream learning support setting in England, particularly in primary education where early intervention is a key priority. If the findings of multi-disciplinary research presented here are to be of value to educational practice, it is important to understand how music is used and viewed in this specific real world context, particularly given concerns that such benefits cannot be considered automatic and may depend upon a number of individual and environmental factors.
This is where this thesis hopes to make a contribution. Given the lack of existing research in this area, this study adopts an open mind in its definition of practice,
negotiating a path between music therapy, education, learning and training opportunities in schools. It explores through the eyes of primary school educators and music and learning support specialists how music is, or might be, used to support children with SEND in mainstream primary education and their experience and perceptions towards the use of music in this context. The thesis seeks to identify the opportunities and challenges music presents to children and educators, and the factors that may affect its use in this context.
Chapter Three
Research Aims, Approach and Method
3.0 Introduction
The discussion so far has demonstrated the considerable research effort and debate that is focussed on understanding and explaining the processes involved in musical learning, as well as music’s impact on brain structure and function and other areas of learning employing the same or similar processes. Nevertheless, there appears to be general consensus that music in its different forms can provide a positive, enjoyable and meaningful learning environment to facilitate, explore and support other learning. However, as already alluded to, despite calls for equal access to musical learning and reference to its potential use in learning support, little is known about the actual use of music as a learning support intervention, and the factors which may affect the use of music in this context.
This thesis aims to address this knowledge gap through an exploratory mixed methods approach in order to gain an insight into the use of music to support the wider learning of children with SEND in mainstream primary educational settings in England. More specifically, the study is concerned with exploring and understanding educators’ experience of and perceptions of using music in this context. It seeks to gain an understanding of the factors, which motivate or discourage such practice and the opportunities and challenges such practice presents across the variety of roles and learning support settings within mainstream primary education. This chapter sets out the rationale for this study and its research aims and questions. The methodological approach is outlined and its advantages and shortcomings are discussed, including the challenges encountered. My own position as a music educator and researcher within this research process is also considered. Data collection and analysis procedures are then discussed.