7.2 LA DISTRIBUCIÓN LAS EXPORTACIONES DE VIETNAM POR PRODUCTOS

Literature Review

Introduction

The purpose of this review, of relevant literature, is to set a broad context of the proposed dissertation study. It will situate the existing literature in a broader scholarly and historical context (Boote & Beele, 2005). More specifically, this chapter will review literature that informs or supports the proposed study which is to investigate the

experiences of African American males employed as Senior Student Affairs Officers (SSAOs) at predominately White institutions of higher education (PWIs) in the United States. A particular focus of this researcher is to better understand how African

American males describe their experiences with and responses to racism and other forms of oppression in their administrative roles. Characteristics, factors, and practices that these administrators perceive as salient to their success will also be investigated. This line of inquiry will contribute to the scant literature that currently exists and it will amplify the muffled voices of this unique sub-group of African American men who work at PWIs.

36

African Americans in higher education; representation of African American

administrators; the retention of African American administrators; the experiences of African American Administrators; the discrimination and racial disparities in non- academic spaces; and the chapter summary. The historical background of African Americans in higher education section discusses the negative effects of slavery and the racial disparities and that African American students face as they pursue their academic goals. The next three sections discuss the themes that emerged in the existing literature as it relates to African American administrators in higher education (see Figure 1). The literature related to the representation of African American administrators outlines the number and types of positions that African Americans occupy. The retention of African American administrators strand reviews the scholarly literature that investigates strategies to retain African Americans at PWIs. The experiences of African American

administrators section demonstrates summarizes the studies that investigate the

experiences of African American administrators. The discrimination and racial disparities in non-academic spaces section discusses literature that extends beyond education. The last section summarizes the chapter and discusses the gap in the extant literature.

Figure 1. Empirical literature related to African Americans in higher education

Historical Background

The African American experience in the United States can not be fully understood without acknowledging the dramatic and lingering effects of slavery. Slavery has shaped the United States’ economy, politics, culture and fundamental principles (Dorsey, 2007). It has fostered notions of race and burned lasting images into the minds of Americans of all backgrounds. Gay and Barber (1987) add that slavery caused cultural imperialism, assimilation, and racism, which were deliberate attempts to convince African Americans that there was something innately inferior about their ethnicity, lifestyles and customs, simply because of their blackness.

Although significant strides have been made through the abolishment of laws that support overt racism, White supremacy ideology and racial discrimination continues to have a detrimental impact on African Americans seeking to advance socio-economically in this country. Bell (2005) argues that the continued resistance to affirmative action plans and other meaningful relief for discrimination-caused harm is largely based on the

38

perception that African American gains threaten the main component of status for many Whites--the sense that Whites are entitled to priority and preference over African

Americans. This reality is infused in every aspect of American life, including education. Many scholars agree that gross inequalities, disparate representation, and denied access have long plagued African Americans in their quest for progress and success in the American educational system.

Decades of research have described the dismal educational conditions for African Americans and the federal legislation enacted to improve those conditions (Hoffman, Llagas, & Snyder, 2003; Nettles & Perna, 1997); however, the results have been slow and insignificant. Many scholars believe that the current academic underachievement of African American children is a consequence of centuries of systematic discrimination in all areas relevant to academic success (Cress-Welsing, 1990; Murray & Jackson, 1997; Woodson, 1990). Over the years, African Americans persevered through inadequate and unequal K-12 schooling and fought numerous battles during the civil rights era that ultimately created postsecondary educational opportunities. It was Brown v. Board of

Education of Topeka I (1954) that finally determined racial segregation in school settings

to be unconstitutional and it led the charge to desegregate public education in the United States. Adams v. Richardson (1973) and United States v. Fordice (1992) challenged the maintenance of dual systems of higher education and forced the state to take affirmative steps to align with Title VI, thereby dismantling existing systems of discrimination. The aforementioned rulings have assisted African Americans in gaining access to PWIs in the United States however; there have been recent attacks against affirmative action policy and other measures enacted to address past racial discrimination. In summary, the history

and legacy of racial discrimination in America has meant that, except in very isolated situations, African Americans have not received fair consideration for positions, especially positions of power and authority in predominately White colleges and universities (Harvey, 1999).

African Americans in the Educational Pipeline

The challenge pertaining to the lack of African Americans in the academic workforce can be better understood by examining the degree in which African American students have accessed and succeeded at educational institutions in the United States. This section will review the empirical literature that investigates the representation, educational attainment, and experiences of African American students. This review will cover literature specific to the educational pipeline leading to employment in the higher education workforce for African Americans.

Predominately White colleges and universities in the United States have made considerable strides as it relates to improving racial diversity in the campus student population. It is acknowledged that the efforts of many United States citizens during the Civil Rights Movement improved the status and conditions for African Americans in higher education; however, there are still some significant challenges that face African American students seeking to pursue their academic goals at PWIs. Studies have been conducted to review and analyze the educational progress made by African Americans in higher education, paying specific attention to the differences in the educational

attainment of Black women and men (Cohen & Nee, 2000; DeSousa, 2001; Jackson, 2007). Prior to the 1960s and the end of legalized segregation, most African Americans received their college and graduate degrees from historically Black colleges and

40

universities (HBCUs). According to Cohen and Nee (2000), 600,000 African Americans were in college and 65 percent were enrolled in HBCUs in 1960. The number of African Americans enrolled in college doubled by 1980 to 1.2 million, but only 20 percent were in HBCUs. The percentage of African American students in HBCUs has continued to decline between 1991 and 1997. Some scholars attribute the increased presence of African Americans at PWIs to GI bills, Civil Rights bills, federal government TRIO programs, Pell Grants, and the expansion of community college programs (Wilson, 1994; Wilson & Melendez, 1988). Cohen and Nee (2000) highlighted the number of African Americans enrolling into higher education was stagnate during the 1980’s and early 1990’s. Research conducted by Jackson (2007) found that African American

undergraduate student enrollment increased 38.8% from 1990 to 2000. As it relates to gender, he also found that African American females experienced greater rates of success in as it pertains to college enrollment and degree attainment (see Table 2). In addition, African American females earned twice the number of bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degrees than males in 2000.

Table 2

Percentage and Distribution of African American Students in Higher Education: 1990 and 2000 Category 1990 2000 Percent Change Undergraduate Total Men Women 1,247,000 485,000 762,000 1,730,000 635,000 1,095,000 38.8% 31.1% 43.6% Bachelor’s Degree Total Men Women 65,341 26,695 41,013 111,307 38,103 73,204 70.3% 41.4% 78.5% Master’s Degree Total Men Women 16,139 5,709 10,430 38,265 11,568 26,697 137.1% 102.6% 156.6% First Professional Total Men Women 3,575 1,672 1,903 5,416 2,110 3,306 51.5% 26.2% 73.7% Doctoral Degree Total Men Women 1,003 417 586 1,604 587 1,017 59.9% 40.8% 73.5% Note: Jackson (2007)

The analysis of African Americans’ access to and educational attainment in higher education is relevant to the current study because it highlights the increased challenges that African American males have at the different stages of the educational pipeline. The marginal and disparate levels of educational attainment experienced by African American male college students presents a challenge as it relates to the ability of African American males to gain employment in the academic workforce. The findings presented in these studies also raise additional questions related to the interactions and

42

experiences of African American men in higher education in general and at PWIs in specific. In the section that follows, empirical literature that is relevant to the experiences of African American students in higher education will be presented with an increased emphasis on the Black male experience.

Many African American students, who gain access to PWIs, still have challenges adjusting to a campus racial climate that is often perceived as inhospitable and

unwelcoming. Although the studies related to African American students thus far focus on enrollment and educational attainment statistics, qualitative research has been

conducted to examine how African Americans and other students of color perceive their experiences at PWIs (Barnes, Lightsey, 2005; Constantine & Sue, 2007; Dancy & Brown, 2008; Daniel, 2007; Solorzano, Ceja, & Yosso, 2000). These studies give voice to the African American student experience at PWIs and they shed light on the negative interactions these students experience due to their race and/or gender.

Utilizing a qualitative, focus group design, Solorzano, Ceja, and Yosso (2000) conducted a study to illustrate how 34 African American students (18 female, 16 males) experience the racial climate of their PWIs. The following are research questions that guided this study:

1. How do African American college students experience racial micro-aggressions? 2. What impact do these racial micro-aggressions have on African American

students?

3. How do African American students respond to racial micro-aggressions? 4. How do racial micro-aggressions affect the collegiate racial climate?

negative and marginalized perception of African American students. Students in the study described a very tense racial climate both inside and outside their academic climates. The authors also found that the racial micro-aggressions experienced by the students resulted in feelings of self-doubt, frustration, discouragement, exhaustion and isolation. Finally, it was revealed that African American students responded to the various racial micro-aggressions by creating counter-spaces located on and off-campus. These counter-spaces were created within African American student organizations, African American fraternities and sororities, African American student-organized academic study halls, peer groups, or organizations or offices that provide services to African American students.

Another study utilized CRT to analyze focus group interview data from African American male students, and the findings revealed that Black misandric beliefs exist in both academic and social spaces in the collegiate environment (Smith, Yosso, and Solorzano, 2007). The authors of the study used a counter-story methodology to dislocate comfortable majoritarian myths and narratives about African American male students while chronicling their everyday experiences navigating through historically White institutions. The author’s counter-stories elaborated on the nuances of gendered racism, discrimination, and hostility experienced by Black male students at PWIs.

In a similar study, Smith, Allen and Danley (2007) utilized a focus group design to investigate the experiences of 36 Black male students enrolled at Harvard University, Michigan State University, University of California, Berkeley, University of Illinois, and the University of Michigan. They examined how these African American males

44

academic, social, and public spaces on campus. Two major themes emerged in this study: (a) Anti-Black male stereotyping and marginality and (b) hyper-surveillance and control. The Black males in this study shared numerous stories from their experiences on campus and in the surrounding communities that highlighted their feelings as “outsiders” who are perceived by the campus community as “fitting the description” of an unwanted element. In each account in which these Black males experienced a racial micro-

agression, they reported having the following psychological responses (e.g., frustration, shock, avoidance or withdrawal, disbelief, anger, aggressiveness, uncertainty or

confusion, resentment, anxiety, helplessness, hopelessness, and fear). In addition, there was unanimous agreement that the college environment was much more hostile and unwelcoming toward African American males than toward other groups.

These studies are relevant because they critically examine how African Americans students experience, interpret, and respond to racism. Collectively, these qualitative studies give voice to experiences of African American male students who attend predominately White institutions. More specifically, the findings fill a void in the extant literature and reveal the negative impact that racism and other forms of

discrimination have on African American students at PWIs. Although the participants in these studies are students, the findings could inform the current study related to African American administrators.

Retention of African American Administrators

The existing educational literature that provides strategies to retain African American students and faculty is abundant; however, very little research has been conducted to fully understand how to retain African American administrators (Jackson, 2001). In the last seven years, a few scholars have begun to research policies and practices that decision-makers at PWIs could follow to better retain African American administrators. These hallmark studies are of critical importance due to the enormous void that they address in the research literature.

According to Jackson (2001), African American faculty and administrators are not only underrepresented in academic institutions, but their retention also presents a problem that needs to be addressed. He contends that out of these two aforementioned groups, administrators receive the least amount of attention in the empirical literature. Consequently, Jackson (2001) explored the concept of retention as it relates to African- American administrators at PWIs and designed a study to determine practical steps that would enable PWIs to retain them. A modified, two-round Delphi technique was used as a method to collect data for this study. The Delphi technique is an iterative process by which a group of experts anonymously reach consensus on a topic of interest where conclusive information is lacking (Clayton, 1997). The process involves a series of questionnaires, with subsequent questionnaires based on responses to preceding

questionnaires. In this study, the panel of experts were recommended by their peers on the basis of their professional roles, experiences, accomplishments, and familiarity with college and university administration. They were all African American administrators at PWIs (60% female and 40% male). The employment distribution was as follows: five

46

worked in academic affairs, four in student affairs, and one in administrative affairs. The first round of the Delphi technique consisted of the development of the first list of

practical steps. Participants instructed to write responses to a broad question. The second round consisted of the integration of recommended steps into one comprehensive list and the redistribution of that list to the panel of experts. This round of the process primarily served as a clarification step to check the accuracy of ideas presented from the panel. All questionnaires were administered via electronic email. Data analysis

consisted of data reduction and data display. The results of the study yielded the following comprehensive list of practical steps:

1. Commit to the principles of diversity and affirmative action; 2. Use recruitment as a retention strategy;

3. Provide equity in wages and salaries; 4. Provide an orientation program;

5. Develop a mentoring program for junior and senior management;

6. Foster open lines of communication between the administration hierarchy and staff;

7. Empower the administrator to perform his or her job;

8. Promote the pursuit of professional advancement and development.

The author of the study also emphasized the importance of remembering that much diversity exists within the African American community. The research findings in this study are very useful because they address a significant void in the extant empirical literature that focuses specifically on African American administrators.

professional growth factors that decision-makers at PWIs can develop to facilitate the retention of African American administrators. He contends that there seems to be a logical linkage between the use of professional development and retention. Specific to this study, he states that the opportunities to learn and grow in one’s position are positive factors that contribute to retention. Jackson utilized the Motivation-Hygiene Theory as a framework to guide this study. The Motivation Hygiene Theory classifies all human needs as they relate to work into two categories: (a) pain avoidance and (b) growth. Utilizing this concept, the researcher considered the different types of incentives or motivators that would satisfy these two sets of needs. The incentives that are classified as pain avoidance are called hygiene factors because they are maintenance factors and are primarily preventative. In addition, these hygiene factors are environmental and external to the job (e.g., managerial style of supervisor, and work climate). The incentives that satisfy growth needs and are internal to the job (e.g., achievement and responsibility) are classified as motivator factors.

The researcher utilized a modified, two-round Delphi method to collect the data because the literature provided little guidance of the topic of study, thus permitting the researcher to explore this topic by using a panel of experts. Participants were selected in a purposeful manner and included the strategy of finding typical cases where the African American administrator satisfied the criterion of a senior administrator (dean level or higher) at a PWI. The panel included six African American males and four African American females. The employment distribution was as follows: four worked in

academic affairs, four worked in student affairs, and two worked in administrative affairs. The first round of data collection utilized an open-ended question to obtain opinions of

48

the panel of experts: What professional growth factors could PWIs implement to help retain African American administrators? In the second round, participants were asked to rank, edit, and comment of the strategies from the first round. Responses were clustered by key themes (strategies) across single cases (panelists).

Data analysis consisted of a series of passes in which data was parsed and analyzed in terms of comparison for administrators’ recommendations, and then all the data was examined for patterns of consistency. Data reduction was managed through a qualitative thematic strategy to organize and make meaning of the collected data. The data was displayed in the form of strategies supplied by panelists. After re-analyzing the data with feedback from the panelists, the following seven professional growth factors emerged:

1. Ensure that the administrator is given the authority to make decisions within the stated job description;

2. Establish mentoring programs that focus on career and academic development with seasoned mentors;

3. Provide release time and funding for research (academic administrators) and professional development activities (student affairs administrators);

4. Enable the administrator to develop knowledge about the college or university by broadening participation beyond the diversity-related committees and functions; 5. Provide a full range of leadership opportunities for the administrator within the

department, unit, college, and university;

6. Provide monthly release time for the administrator as a substitute for additional hours worked (e.g., advising) with the underrepresented student populations;

7. Focus on strengthening the surrounding African American community by

rewarding participation in local community organizations, business, and industry. These seven strategies contribute to the scant empirical literature that exists that focuses