DISTRITOS URBANOS

The tourism industry was, and still is, seen as an industry that enhances economic transitioning, the improving of livelihoods through job creation and cultural awareness, and rebuilding of the South African image that was associated with negative misconceptions of the apartheid system in the past (Ramlall, 2012). However, such issues as poverty and inequality, as well as a high rate of unemployment, still haunt the country, despite the demise of apartheid (Tseane-Gumbi, 2015). The above has called for the government, and for various businesses involved with

various economic activities, to partner and work together towards addressing such issues, and to strive towards ensuring sustainable economic growth in the country (Robinson & White, 1998). CSR is one of the most effective ways of making sure that the related objectives are attained (Tseane-Gumbi, 2015). In South Africa, companies engage in CSR activities on a voluntary basis, so as to contribute to the environment, society and the economy. De Groibos (2012:897) defines CSR as:

[t]he continuing commitment by a business to behave ethically and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the workplace and their families as well [as] the local community and society at large.

In addition to de Groibos’s (2012) definition, Garay and Font (2012) view CSR as the active and voluntary contribution of a company to environmental, social and economic improvement. Hotels in South Africa have incorporated CSR as a way of protecting the environment, and of addressing social problems in terms of a post-apartheid South Africa.

According to the World Bank (2005), CSR entails the voluntary integration of a company’s social and environmental concerns into its management strategies and business operations. Such commitment goes beyond the inherent business, legal and other contractual obligations to which there tends to be general adherence. The deeper issue in relation to CSR, as stated by Wood (1991), is to promote the idea, among organisations, that businesses and society are so inevitably intertwined that they cannot reasonably be regarded as separate entities. Jones, Comfort and Hiller (2006:330) observe that “CSR is more philanthropy, than a company’s core business, it is a way in which a company shows social concerns by making charitable donations whilst they strive to operate in a socially responsible way”. In contrast, the World Bank (2005) suggests that CSR has so many variations and meanings that it cannot be defined as a ‘one size fits all’. According to Sharp and Zaidman (2010), CSR is beneficial to companies because it is value- centric, morally upright and highly ethical in its practice. Abiding by such a principle fosters participating in informative communication, instead of in persuasive negotiations, with all stakeholders, resulting in it not being resisted by organisational communities.

Garrone, Melacini, Perego (2014:1470) advocate for the donating of surplus food by hotels to food banks. Garrone et al. (2014) further suggest that companies tend to formulate their food surplus management policies as CSR-related best practice. Food bank companies need to improve on their logistics excellence, on their transparency, and on their ability to respond efficiently to donors with the capacity to receive and store all goods intended for donation.

Assiouras, Ozgen and Skourtis (2011) investigate the relationship between product harm crisis (PHC) and CSR, showing, ironically, how the adoption of CSR can have a negative impact on brand perception. It is, therefore, important for the food industry to assess the kinds and quality of foods that they donate to food banks and charities.

According to Caraher and Cavicchi (2014), it is ironical that food goes to waste when hunger is one of the world’s biggest problems. The researchers concerned warn against the creation of food banks to show generosity, but even more so as a way of showing a relatively deep understanding of the environmental impact thereof. Schneider (2013) observes that food waste is referred to as unethical, because it has negative social, environmental, and economic impacts. In relation to the above, Graci and Dodds (2008:258) state:

It has been well documented in several studies that economic benefits can be gained through implementing environmental initiatives; however, the deterrence for many firms is the capital costs that must be expended prior to these benefits being gained.

Some of the leading food retailers’ CSR agendas in the World Bank, for example, include environmental and sustainability considerations (Coles, Fenclova, Dinan, 2013; Hamann & Accut, 2013; Newell & Fryness, 2007;Vettori, 2005), such as those relating to energy consumption, gas emissions, raw material usage, water consumption, waste volumes, and packaging options, and recycling (Cillier & Carvicchi, 2014). The food retailers equally display their adherence to CSR initiatives that are dedicated to employee development through training and incentives related to health, safety, recruitment, retirement, and general employee well- being (Jones, Comfort, Hillier & Eastwood, 2005). Such retailers also participate in the fostering of the well-being and vibrancy of customers and communities by means of implementing such initiatives as providing services to the elderly, listening to customer views, attending to complaints, promoting healthy living, and supporting schools and sporting initiatives, to mention just a few. In the above-mentioned study, the researchers found that each retailer had a different approach to CSR, but the belief that long-term sustainability depends on all the stakeholders concerned was shared (Jones et al., 2005). However, Oelesfe (2013) argues that such strategies are insufficient for the South African context, where the focus has mainly been placed on the opportunities and challenges of food waste.

The concept of CSR entails that hotel and restaurant managers should not only take responsibility for their shareholders, but also for all the stakeholders who are (in)directly affected by the business (Lannelongue & Gonzalez-Benito, 2012). Hotel and restaurant

companies engage in CSR activities: to improve on their corporate images (O’Rourke, 2004); to enhance the morale of their employees (Matten & Moon, 2004); to improve their employee retention rates (Golja & Nizic, 2010); to build sound relationships with governments and communities (Lee & Park, 2009:105); to improve profit levels (Kim, Kim & Mattila, 2016); and to respond to the growing expectations of customers and social groups (Lannelongue & Gonzalez-Benito, 2012).

So as to attain such benefits, many hotel companies have adopted the following, among others: the running of social and environmental training programmes; the monitoring of environmental costs and savings; the adoption of green purchasing policies; the implementation of recycling programmes; and adherence to energy- and water-saving programmes (Chung & Parker, 2010).