Transcript analysis allowed comparisons of perceived social agent influence across each stage of athlete development. Table 2 summarises the key categories of perceived social agent influence across the sampling, specialising and investment stages of athlete
development. Five categories of perceived social agent influence on athlete motivation during development emerged from the data: (a) relationship factors; (b) interpersonal interactions; (c) support for development; (d) support for performance; and (e) feedback/evaluation. All social agents were involved in each category of influence at some point during athlete
development, though influences changed over time. Subsequent discussion will describe how perceived social agent influence changed across athlete development for each of these
categories.
The following sections will consider each category of perceived social agent influence, and describe the themes within each of these categories, social agent roles represented by these themes, and how these influences were perceived to change over time. To differentiate between participants, they will be described as ‘players’ and ‘parents’ when presenting themes and quotes.
Table 2: Descriptions of categories and higher order themes of perceived social agent influence on athlete motivation
Category Description Higher Order Themes Description
Relationship Factors
Indicators of the quality of relationships between athletes and social agents
Friendships Positive relationships a constructive influence within football setting
Role Models Players looked up to social agents and aspired to be like them
Group Factors Encouragement to feel belonging to a team
Closeness Players established close and personal relationships with social agents
Similarity Social agents had similar experiences and passions as players
Selective Relationships Players chose which social agents to interact with
Continuity Coaches being a constant presence during development important
Interpersonal Interactions
Behaviours demonstrated by social agents during interactions with players
Supportive Behaviours Behaviours which matched the needs and goals of players
Engendered Positive Feelings Behaviours that made players feel good about themselves
Negative Influence Explicit and implicit behaviours which reduced player motivation
Promoting Intrinsic Motivation Behaviours which promoted player enjoyment and autonomy
Support for Development
Behaviours which contributed to players’ sport development
Technical Development Assisting the development of players’ technical skills
Psychological Development Assisting the development of players’ psychological skills
Support for Development Contextualising player experiences as developmental opportunities
Prepare for Performance Helping players prepare for competitive performance
Support for Performance
Behaviours which
facilitated and supported sport performance
Practical Support Logistical and lifestyle support
Social Support Emotional and interpersonal support for development
Providing Access to Sport Social agents acting as gatekeepers to sport participation
Effort Support Support to maintain high levels of effort
Support for Performance Providing access to performance opportunities (e.g., team selection)
Feedback & Evaluation
Behaviours which helped players evaluate
competencies
Reflection Helping players understand and learn from developmental experiences
Praise Providing positive comments and encouragement for performance
Table 3: Relationship Factors Category for Each Social Agent Across Each Developmental Stage
Sampling Stage Specialising Stage Investment Stage
Friendships
Developing Friendships (C, Pe) Developing friendships (Pe) Friendships Developing Friendships (Pe) Friendships Friendships Changing (Pe) Closeness
Positive Relationship (C) Respecting Social Agent (C, Pe)
Closeness
Positive Relationship (C, Pe) Respecting Social Agent (C, Pa, Pe)
Closeness
Positive Relationship (C, Pe) Respecting Social Agent (C, Pe) Role Models
Parental Role (C) Role Model (C, Pe)
Role Models
Role Model (Pe) Parental Role (C) Role Models
Role Model (C, Pe) Group Factors
Learning from others (C, Pe) Motivated to be part of the team (C, Pe) Perceived pressure in team environment (Pe)
Group Factors Learning from others (Pe) Motivated to be part of the team (Pe)
Developing group cohesion (C, Pe) Perceived pressure in team environment (C, Pe)
Group Factors Learning from others (C, Pe) Developing group cohesion (C, Pe) Perceived pressure in team environment (C, Pe)
Similarity
Shared passion for the game (C) Seeking attention of social agent (C) Shared interests and experiences (Pe)
Similarity
Seeking attention of social agent (Pe) Shared interests and experiences (Pe)
Similarity
Shared passion for the game (C) Shared interests and experiences (C, Pe)
Understood how they think (C, Pe) Selective Relationships
Other supporters (Pe) Choosing those who influence (C, Pa, Pe) Selective Relationships Other supporters (Pa)
Continuity (C) Key: C = Coaches; Pa = Parents; Pe = Peers
4.3.1. Relationship Factors.
Players reflected on the importance of the quality of the relationships they have with social agents during their development, and this was a consistent factor during all stages of development. Table 3 illustrates the higher order themes (HOTs) of motivationally-relevant relationship factors for social agents across each developmental stage. These higher order themes will now be discussed in turn.
4.3.1.1. Friendships.
Friendships were a recurring HOT throughout each stage of development, primarily about peers. During the sampling stage this was a reason for, and an outcome from,
participation in sport, with players establishing relationships that were not exclusive to the sporting environment. Player 4 highlighted that having friends made him “…happy to go,
‘cause you are like ‘oh, yes I am goin’ to see my pals tonight’…it made it more enjoyable to go”, demonstrating that friendships motivated players to attend training. Friendships
continued to be important as players progressed into new situations such as football
academies or secondary schools. Player 2 commented that “…the football part was the way
to sort of link up with people, because you didn't have any sort of prior knowledge of each other or know what anyone had did or what anyone was like…”, highlighting the positive
role that developing friendships had in a football setting. In the investment stage, friendships appeared to change as players joined clubs and saw their friends who they had developed with not progress to this level. Parent 4 commented that “...I think [it] is having more of an
effect on him ‘cause he has built up long relationships with some of these boys and some of them are just not going to make it…”, showing that relationships are changing at this stage,
however they further highlight the positive influence of new relationships when stating “…he
has got used to the fact that…new players come in and out, and he is quite excited if a new player comes in…”.
4.3.1.2. Closeness.
Closeness in the relationship with social agents – particularly coaches and peers – were important across all stages of development. About coaches during the sampling stage, Player 2 commented that “…them having a sort of close personal connection with myself
effort into training. Important in this closeness was the idea of respect between the social agent and the athlete. During the specialising stage, Player 2 commented that his coach was
“…quite firm, but at the same time he was…he was a nice guy”. At the same stage, Parent 1
commented that their son “looked at the coaches as kind of mentors, that they knew what they
were talking about and for him to proceed on he was better to listen to them as they knew what they were talking about”. As players progressed into the investment stage the
importance of this closeness continued and having close relationships with peers and coaches was important for enjoyment, confidence and performance at this high level. For closeness amongst team members, Player 3 highlighted that “…it keeps…morale high, it keeps you sort
of happy…it keeps everyone a lot happier, keeps everything a lot smoother…it just keeps your confidence when you’re playing”. The importance of this closeness with peers at this stage
was highlighted by Player 1: “…we all cared for each other and had a little bit of a wee bond
and that on the go. ‘Cause we just respect each other. So we all kind of cared and wanted the best for each other”.
4.3.1.3. Role Models.
Social agents acting as role models had an influence on players during their development. This role was consistent for peers during all stages of development, with players explicitly comparing themselves to their teammates and learning from their
behaviours. Despite being consistent during development, Player 2 described the importance of having teammates that act as role models:
If you’ve got someone to look up to that’s nice and cool and collected, that makes you want to be like that, and then show other people that you can be like that as well so they think you are cool and collected.
Coaches were also seen to adopt parental roles during the sampling stage when players were new to the football environment, as highlighted by Player 2 stating “I think they
were all quite like father figures…more like really good guys, always having a laugh and making you feel, like, good about yourself”. This was mirrored when players were at the
investment stage, with Parent 4 commenting that: “...the coach becomes…like a secondary
parent if you like, as a good coach will become sort of the next most important person in their life”.
4.3.1.4. Group Factors.
The HOT Group Factors was an important one throughout all stages of development and involved the influence of coaches and peers at each stage. Belonging to a group was consistently referred to as being important for players, though this was for a variety of reasons. Being motivated to be part of a team with peers and coaches was important at the sampling stage, with Parent 4 stating about their son that “…it was quite important to him
because generally kids like to belong to something…to feel a part of something…”. This
factor was important at the specialising stage, but coaches contributed to this by developing a sense of cohesion as illustrated by Parent 4 when referring to their child’s coach: “…he was
quite good at bringing the boys and getting them to work as a team and bringing out the good points in them”. As this idea of cohesion developed into the investment stage there was a
clear perception that this was equally influenced by peers and coaches at the same time, as described by Player 3: “…the environment is created by the standard of play, so like if
everything is going well and the coach is having some banter…then you know everyone is working hard and doing well”.
A positive team environment also provided players with the opportunity to learn from peers and coaches as they developed. In the early stages of their involvement in football Player 2 felt he “…wanted to improve and take their advice on and use it”, when considering peers and coaches. As players progressed into the specialising and investments stages and joined higher performing teams they actively sought to learn from those with more
experience or skills, as evidenced by Player 3 commenting that:
There are some players that are better than you and some that are not so good…the ones who are better than you, they sort of motivate you to…be as good, if not better than them…and the ones you are better than sort of gave you that confidence…to keep pushing on, just to sort of be better.
Although the team environment provided many positive influences for the players, it did also lead to perceptions of pressure from coaches and peers. Part of this was to do with pressure to perform well enough to maintain your place in the team, even as early as the sampling stage, as evidenced by Player 3 commenting that “…you don't want to be the friend
who gets, like, released, or the friend who, like, doesn't play anymore”. Though players had
established friendships and enjoyed being part of the team they were competing with one another for positions. This perceived pressure was also related to performance levels of the
team when reaching the investment stage as illustrated by Player 3 who commented that “…if
there wasn't a fun environment and…everyone was sort of snapping at each other…you would know yourself that it is not a sort of good standard”.
4.3.1.5. Similarity.
The similarity HOT reflected the importance of coaches and peers having similar passions and shared interests with athletes and was evident at all stages of development. This similarity progressed from a perception that coaches were “engendering a sort of passion for
football from quite an early age at the club” (Parent 2), during the sampling stage, by sharing
their own passion for the sport with young people. During the specialising stage players started to gain support from the similarity of experience their peers were having, and using this to help transition, for example, into a new school. In the high-performance environment of the investment stage, Player 3 commented that their coach was “…an ex pro himself and
he just sort of knew exactly what you needed”, when referring to how their coach having had
a similar experience enhanced their influence.
4.3.1.6. Selective Relationships.
Additional relationship factors became important during the specialising and investment stages of development. During these stages players commented that they would be selective in allowing specific social agents to influence their development. Siblings were seen to play a role in supporting players to achieve their goals in sport during the specialising stage, and during the investment stage athletes highlighted that they would choose to not allow their peers from out with their sport influence their choices. For example, Player 3 described that his friends outside of sport “…go out every…well, most weekends, and you
don't wanna be the guy who is just sort of living for the weekend”, demonstrating his choice
not to allow his friends to influence his performance in sport.
4.3.1.7. Continuity.
Continuity of coaches was identified by players as being important during the investment stage of development. Coaches being with athletes extensively, getting to know them and forming lasting relationships with them was identified as being important for success at higher levels of performance.
4.3.1.8. Relationship Factors Across Stages of Development.
Relationships between players and social agents were motivationally important, with perceived social agent influence fluctuating during player development. The changes in perceived social agent influence will now be discussed for each of the three developmental stages.
4.3.1.8.1. Sampling Stage.
Indicators of relationship quality related to coaches and peers but not parents. Establishing friendships with peers and coaches was important in this new environment, as was the degree of closeness within these relationships. Coaches and peers acted as role models to players. Players enjoyed belonging to a team, with coaches and peers creating a team environment, which was further enhanced by perceived similarity with coaches and peers in terms of interest and passion.
4.3.1.8.2. Specialising Stage.
Players’ relationships with peers increased in importance during this stage. Similarity of experience and friendships with peers progressing through to football academies helped players thrive in this new setting. Moving to football academies provided access to more talented peers who became role models for players as “…they wanted to be as good as
them…they were fantastic football players…gifted players” (Parent 2). Players exercised
their choice of relationships with peers, choosing facilitative peer relationships, which helped them as a player. The team environment was influenced by coaches. Closeness in the
relationships with influential social agents was important, as illustrated by Player 2 who commented that his coach “...was a nice guy…you’ve got that respect, but you can kind of
open up to him”.
4.3.1.8.3. Investment Stage.
Players’ relationships with coaches and peers dominated during this stage with closeness in relationships with social agents important. Coaches and peers acted as role models to players, and Player 3 illustrated the importance of coach awareness of performance
demands in commenting that his coach was “…an ex pro himself and he just sort of knew
exactly what you needed”. Coaches and peers adopted a professional approach during
training and competition in which all players worked hard and got on well with one another in a positive team environment. Although players valued this team environment, it led to perceptions of pressure due to competition for places. Players again exercised their choice of the relationships to ensure that relationships facilitated development and performance. Despite the changing personnel within professional clubs, players got “…quite excited if a
new player comes in…” (Parent 4) and grasped the opportunity to establish new friendships.
Participants also deemed having continuity and lasting relationships with coaches as important.
Table 4: Interpersonal Interactions Category for Each Social Agent Across Each Developmental Stage
Sampling Stage Specialising Stage Investment Stage
Supportive Behaviours Allowed players to be themselves (C) Promoting fun and enjoyment (C, Pa, Pe)
Serious approach to training (C) Providing players with rewards (Pa)
Supportive Behaviours
Allowed players to be themselves (C, Pa) Promoting fun and enjoyment (C, Pa, Pe)
Serious approach to training (C) Communicating (C, Pe)
Providing players with rewards (C, Pa)
Supportive Behaviours
Allowed players to be themselves (C, Pa) Promoting fun and enjoyment (C, Pa)
Serious approach to training (Pe) Communicating (Pe)
Engendering Positive Feelings Made player feel good about self (C)
Made them feel comfortable (C)
Engendering Positive Feelings Made player feel good about self (C)
Made them feel comfortable (C, Pe) Created special moments (C) Negative Influence
Negative social influence (C, Pe) Negative reactions following
performance (C) Demotivating influence (C) Perception of pressure (C, Pa, Pe)
Negative Influence Negative social influence (C, Pe)
Perception of pressure (Pa, Pe)
Negative Influence Negative reactions following
performance (C) Perception of pressure (Pa)
Intrinsic Motivation Player motivating self (C, Pa) Love of football motivating (C, Pe)
Intrinsic Motivation Player motivating self (C) Love of football motivating (Pa, Pe)
Intrinsic Motivation Player motivating self (C, Pa) Love of football motivating (Pa, Pe) Coaches; Pa = Parents; Pe = Peers
4.3.2. Interpersonal Interactions.
As well as identifying influencing factors relating to the quality of their relationship with social agents, participants highlighted specific behaviours and interpersonal interactions that influenced their motivation at different stages of development. Table 4 illustrates the higher order themes of motivationally-relevant interpersonal interactions for social agents across each developmental stage. These higher order themes will now be discussed in turn.
4.3.2.1. Supportive Behaviours.
One of the most important social agent interpersonal interactions was supportive behaviours, which broadly encapsulated behaviours that players perceived as being helpful during their development. All social agents demonstrated these behaviours in different ways during each stage. During the sampling stage, all three social agents were involved in creating a positive environment that “wasn't about winning or anything, it was just about
enjoying yourself” (Parent 4). Behaviours experienced were all about creating a positive and
enjoyable atmosphere about football training where coaches and parents encouraged athletes to be themselves. As players progressed into the specialising stage these supportive
behaviours continued despite training taking on a more serious focus. Coaches and peers were creating such a positive atmosphere that players “…didn't want to come off the pitch
sometimes at night because they were enjoying themselves” (Parent 3). Despite the emphasis
on fun, coaches were focussed on developing athletes to the point that this seriousness
encouraged athletes further, as evidenced by Player 2 commenting that his coach “didn't give
out compliments that much, so you were always trying to impress him to get that compliment out of him”. As players progressed into the investment stage of development, these
behaviours continued and ensured that, even with additional pressures of performing at a higher level and committing more resources to their sport, the interaction they had with social agents was positive. Parents and coaches continued to allow athletes to have autonomy and ownership over their choices, and peers came to behave in more serious ways in this new,