Ecología y medio ambiente

As stated by Hicks (1988a: 14), the development of conflict resolution skills is one of the important objectives of peace education in order that students might analyse different conflicts in objective and systematic ways, suggest a range of solutions to them and implement solutions themselves. Deutsch (1993) also considers the promotion of constructive conflict resolution as one of the key components of education programmes to prepare children

for a peaceful world. Recently, there have been a number of peace education programmes in the UK and elsewhere especially focusing on the development of skills for conflict resolution and mediation. While there are a range of programmes for conflict resolution or mediation, some common ground can be found, such as the following elements suggested by Deutsch (1993: 512-5): knowledge of different conflicts and different strategies, with a notion of power involved in conflict; positive attitudes towards conflict with the recognition of negative consequences of avoiding certain conflict situations; awareness of the causes and consequences of violence and of the alternatives to violence; respect for yourself and your interests, and respect for others and their interests; identification of the common or compatible interests; a distinction between interests and positions, as opposing positions do not always mean incompatible interests; an understanding and acceptance of cultural differences; the skills and attitudes required for co-operative conflict resolution; the ability to communicate with others; recognition of the tendencies towards bias, misperceptions, misjudgements and stereotyped thinking; and self-awareness of one’s reaction in conflict situations.

The basis of these aspects of conflict resolution can be found in the elements of and the processes of conflict indicated in ‘the Conflict Triangle’ by Galtung (1975: 81) (see Figure 2 in Chapter 2), including the idea that the actors’ behaviour, and their attitudes towards conflict, themselves or others, as well as their goals influence the processes of escalation and de-escalation of conflicts (Galtung, 1975: 81-2; Brand-Jacobsen, 2002: 20). In the process of training in conflict resolution, Deutsch (1993) states that,

My emphasis is on the strategy of cooperative problem solving to find a mutually satisfactory solution to the conflict and on the development and application of mutually acceptable fair principles to handle situations in which the aspirations of both sides cannot be realized equally. (Deutsch, 1993: 512)

This viewpoint is underpinned by the idea of conflict transformation, in which co-operation is considered an important element for constructive conflict resolution (e.g. Francis, 2002: 29),

since the purpose of conflict resolution is ‘to discover or develop common ground and reach a mutually acceptable agreement, through a co-operative process rather than a contest’ (Francis, 2002: 30). Alongside co-operation, other important elements of constructive conflict resolution include dialogue, empowerment, participation and just relationships (ibid: 30, 37).

In addition to these elements of conflict resolution training, mediation programmes have been practised in some schools in order to resolve conflicts in which disputing parties need

‘the help of the third parties acting as mediators’ (Deutsch, 1993: 516). Based on the idea that mediators are there to ‘assist the disputants to find mutually acceptable solutions,’ mediation in schools aims to help the disputants to ‘define the problem from their point of view,’

‘identify and express their feelings and needs,’ ‘hear the feelings and needs of the other person,’ ‘acknowledge each other’s point of view,’ ‘create solutions,’ and ‘evaluate progress and repeat if necessary’ (Stacey and Robinson, 1997: 7). Whilst peer mediation in the school context is seen as an alternative way of dealing with conflict among children themselves by asking other children rather than adults to manage it, in particular, ‘the voluntary and co-operative nature of mediation’ is considered essential, since mediation is voluntary and not possible without co-operation of the disputants (Tyrrell, 2002: 29).

On the other hand, there is concern over a mediation approach to conflict, since a mediator may be neutral in the role of communicating with both parties, but there is no assumption that the mediation approach is ‘associative,’ that is, the union of two parties based on some interdependence, rather than ‘dissociation’ in which the two parties are isolated from each other (Galtung, 1975: 346). According to Galtung (1975: 346), the dissociative approach has the advantage of involving no violence or dominance (structural violence) under conditions of non-contact, while the associative approach promotes a ‘high level of interaction between the actors,’ ‘togetherness and a strengthening of ties’ based on ‘the theory that the more closely interrelated the parties are, the less will they or can they fight each other’ (Galtung, 1975: 94).

When peace education aims to achieve not only ‘negative peace’ (the absence of violence),

but also ‘positive peace’ (co-operation and integration among people), as the two sides of peace defined by Galtung (1975: 130), the associative approach, rather than the dissociative approach, seems to support the principles of peace education, with its philosophy underpinned by ‘positive peace’. Moreover, two major strategies in the associative approach, similarity and interdependence (Galtung, 1975: 94-5), can also support the practice of peace education, with interdependence focusing on the relation between the parties in conflict, and with similarity being based on the idea that the two parties in conflict (whether an individual or a group) have something in common, which is opposed to the strategy of dissociation by emphasising their differences.

The elements of conflict resolution and mediation training emphasised above, including non-violent conflict resolution and mediation skills, co-operation, interaction, dialogue, sharing feelings, seeking common ground and goals, building positive relationships, can be found in the practice of many existing programmes (e.g. Prutzman et al., 1978; Johnson and Johnson, 1996; Kingston Friends Workshop Group, 1996). One wide-spread model for conflict resolution and mediation programmes used in the USA, the UK and elsewhere is Children’s Creative Response to Conflict Program (CCRC) in New York (Prutzman et al., 1978), which was developed from a Quaker project on non-violent education for children in the 1970s. CCRC focuses on practical exercises involving the themes of co-operation, affirmation and communication, underpinned by the principle of an equal distribution of power, positions and opportunities, represented by the participants forming a circle structure (Prutzman et al., 1978: 12). Based on this model, peer mediation in schools aims to develop social and emotional skills as well as communication skills, to create a co-operative classroom atmosphere, to praise pupils and raise self-esteem, to promote understanding and awareness of others, to offer pupils the opportunity to learn alternatives to disruption and violence, to promote pupils’ ownership of their resolution of disputes, and to improve learning by creating a safe and positive environment (Stacey and Robinson, 1997: 10-11).

Whilst these practices and programmes for conflict resolution or mediation emphasise the improvement of skills and personal relationships, a mere focus on resolving conflict with skill-based practice is sometimes criticised for maintaining a status quo in unequal power relationships (e.g. Berlowits, 1994; Francis, 2002). This concern has been expressed by Francis (2002: 37-8), who points out the need for ‘justice and the realities of power’ by criticising the emphasis on the role of mediators and their impartiality without moral judgement and assessments of the effects of unequal power relationships, as seen previously.

This critical viewpoint on conflict resolution is based on conflict theories, such as conflict transformation theory (e.g. Lederach, 1995), which stresses ‘the need to address underlying structural and cultural violence and of the inevitability of conflict in the process of change’

with the emphasis on the idea of transforming conflict into better relationships (Francis, 2002:

6-7). Similarly, Galtung (1975: 98) notes that there is a concern over the associative approach above in terms of power relationships of interdependent parties. Hence the question of symmetry needs to be considered and included in a process of dealing with conflict. Thus, it is important for conflict resolution programmes to take account of power relationships, with the aim of transforming unequal relationships into more just relationships, while practical skills should be accompanied with a critical awareness of reality and moral consciousness.

Overall, this suggests that, while the development of conflict resolution and mediation skills is only one of the important elements for dealing with conflict without violence, constructive conflict resolution also requires the presence of other elements, such as the values of equality and respect, the practice of co-operation and communication, consideration of feelings and needs, and positive relationships, as well as the raising of awareness of structural violence within unequal power relationships in conflict, and the need for building more just equal relationships.