Secrecy was a particularly negative characteristic as it was associated with subversive activity. Foreign superstitions were particularly suspect of being secretive. Nocturnal meetings were suspect to the Roman authorities because secrecy and subversiveness were closely linked to them.
The danger posed by secrecy resulted in nocturnal meetings being forbidden in the city by the Twelve Tables.147 This was especially true when it involved ritualism. The danger that secrecy posed to the state came to light dramatically with the chance uncovering of the Bacchanalia superstition. Livy records how the Senate was horrified at the extent that the Bacchanalia had been able to spread undetected.148 Amongst the decrees of the Senate was the following: “aediles plebis viderent ne qua sacra in operto fierent.”149 Concerning the charge of talking in corners while being silent in public, Clark states: “The charge was the sort that could be levelled against any exclusive and generally retiring sect, especially with a strict catechumenate.”150 It was important
enough for philosophers to ensure that they were not open to the charge of secrecy.
Secrecy was one of the accusations that early Christian apologists had to deal with. Origen notes Celsus' accusation on this subject, “After this, Celsus proceeded to speak of the Christians as teaching and practising their favourite doctrines in secret.”151 This contrast will be examined in greater detail in a subsequent section which deals with the Christian proclamation as representing the reasonable mean.
Luke's statement that Paul compelled the Christians to blaspheme, opens an array of inter-related concepts which have at their base an unreasoned and uncontrolled opposition to the divine activity. The Jews who subsequently take over the abuse of Christians, alternate between shouting in public and secret plots. Both these extremes of behaviour are characteristic of superstition.
2.4 “I persecuted”
147 Tab. 8 leg.26: Ne quis in urbe coetus nocturnos agitaret.
148 Livy From the Founding of the City 39.8-19.
149 Ibid., 39.14..9: “the plebeian aediles were to see to it that no celebration of the rites should be held in
secret.”
150 W.G.Clarke, The Octavius of Marcus Minucius Felix, in J.Quasten, W.J.Burghardt, T.C.Lawler, Ancient Christian Writers, The Works of the Fathers in Translation, (New York, Newman Press, 1974), 209.
151 Origen Contra Celsum 1.3. It is also an accusation about Christians echoed by Minucius Felix: Occultis
se notis et insignibus noscunt. M.Felix Octavius 9.2. Clark explains the significance of this accusation as follows: “The present charge need not, therefore, have any real objective evidence; it was a natural one to make against people regarded as forming a secret society.” W.G.Clarke, Octavius, 215. In Octavius 10.1, Minucius Felix echoes another common opinion about Christianity: pravae religionis obscuritas.
The fourth word that describes Paul's pre-Christian characteristics is δίφθov (Ac.26:11). Generally commentators say very little about this word, but there are basically two ways of interpreting it. It could mean “to persecute” or “to pursue.” Although Haenchen does not give reasons, he chooses “persecute” and translates the phrase: “I persecuted them even to the cities outside.”152 The New International Version translation also conveys this understanding. “In my obsession against them, I even went to foreign cities to persecute them.”153 Jackson and Lake state that δηώθφ retains something of its original meaning “to pursue” especially as it is followed by ες which gives it a spacial dimension.154 Oepke points out that when it is without an object, δηώθφ usually refers to motion.155 Some of the bible translations reflect this understanding. The Jerusalem Bible reads, “my fury against them was so extreme that I even pursued them into foreign cities.”156 Whether Luke intended Paul's action against Christians to be understood as “persecution” or “pursuit” is debatable but its excessive nature is clearly emphasised by the words φς θα ες ης ξφ πόι εης. Jackson and Lake point this out by indicating that “φς θα ες seems merely an emphatic form of ες.”157 This understanding of the text is put across more strongly by Haenchen when he states: “This also is an intensification compared with Chapters 9.2 and 22.5, where Paul goes from Jerusalem directly to Damascus.”158
The way Luke has constructed the sentence by introducing the notion of “pursuit to the furthest cities” increases the dynamics of the persecution in a significant way. When one bears in mind that Luke-Acts is structured as a journey narrative which progresses in an orderly way under the guidance of God, Luke's description of Paul pursuing Christians to the outer cities as a result of his raging, heightens the significance of this action. Paul's pursuing the Christians contrasts particularly with Luke's portrayal of Jesus going on ahead (πoρεύεηo κπρoζζ εv Lk.19:28) of his disciples and leading the way.159
As Luke's journey narrative also has strong parallels with the journey of Moses and the people of Israel,160 the depiction of Paul's extreme form of pursuit of the people of God
152 Haenchen, 680.
153 Harrison likewise translates it as “I kept pursuing them even to foreign cities.” Harrison, 374.
154 Jackson, Lake, Beginnings, 4.318. Bailly gives many examples of the use of δηώθφ and the
overwhelming majority of cases primarily involve the notion of “pursuit” rather than “persecution.” Bailly, s.v., δηώθφ, DGF.
155 Oepke, δηώθφ, TDNT 2: 229.
156 Traduction Œcumenique de la Bible also indicates pursuing, “je les poursuivais jusque dans les villes
étrangères.” Although Johnson does not offer any supporting evidence, in his translation he also chooses pursuing. “I was pursuing them even to the outlying cities.” Johnson, 430.
157Jackson, Lake, Beginnings, 4.317.
158 Haenchen, 685.
159 O'Toole basing his research on Jackson & Lake has indicated the importance of “leader” (ρτε γός) in
the role of the risen Christ. R.F.O'Toole, Activity of the Risen Jesus in Luke-Acts, Biblica 62 (1981): 492. cf. F.Jackson, K.Lake, ΥΡIΣΟ ΑΡΥΗΓΟ, Beginnings, 5.278.
160 The idea that Luke has modelled his journey on Moses and the Exodus has been recognized in various
quarters. Concerning Luke-Acts Allen writes: “Thus the narrator definitely indicates that the passion, resurrection, and ascension of Jesus in Luke-Acts is patterned after the exodus.” O.W.Allen, The Death of
presents him in complete contrast to the way Moses led the Israelites. Instead of leading, Paul's act of pursuing creates a parallel with the unbelieving Pharaoh who pursues the Israelites in order to destroy them. As the actions of Pharaoh were obviously contrary to God they were symptomatic of his erroneous beliefs. Therefore Paul, like Pharaoh, by pursuing the people of God, gives expression to the extent of his erroneous beliefs. As argued above, erroneous beliefs result in superstition.
137. Allen also refers to Jindich Mánek, The New Exodus in the Books of Luke, NovT (2) 1958, 8-23, and to David P.Moessner, Luke 9:1-50: Luke's Preview of the Journey of the Prophet Like Moses of Deuteronomy, JBL 102 (1983): 582-600. O'Toole explores the parallels between Jesus and Moses and makes the following statement concerning Luke 9:51 which deals with the start of Jesus' journey to Jerusalem: “Jesus' `exodus' can be expressed as being “received up” and includes this Moses-like journey to Jerusalem.” R.O'Toole, Parallels between Jesus and Moses, Biblical Theology Bulletin 20 (1990): 23.
There is a further dimension to Paul's action which needs to be investigated. Jesus' instruction and commission to His disciples (Ac.1:8) was to be His witnesses, starting in Jerusalem up to the ends of the earth (θα φς ζτά ηoσ ης γς). The similarity in structure between this phrase and φς θα ες ης ξφ πόι εης (Ac.26:11) which describes the extent of Paul's intended persecution, is significant. It is not only the structure but also the similar extended geographical scope that each represents, which heightens the contrast between them. The contrast between these two phrases presents Paul's persecution as being similar in scope but diametrically opposed to God's command and purpose.161 Like Jesus' command to start in Jerusalem and then move beyond the confines of Judea and ultimately to the ends of the earth; Paul's journey of persecution begins in Jerusalem under the authority of the chief priests (Ac.26:10) and intends to reach the furthermost cities. Haenchen, without realizing it, points out the similarity between these two sections, when he notes: “as far as outlying cities = outside Judaea.”162 This description of Paul's journey of persecution appears in the text as being in opposition to Jesus' command concerning the spread of the gospel message. Therefore while Paul is under the impression that he is fulfilling God's purpose in persecuting the Christians, he is in fact setting himself up in opposition to God. To work in opposition to God while under the impression that one is fulfilling God's will, is not only a sign of error but also of superstition. In order to understand the importance of this concept for Luke and the associated implication that it is a sign of irrational superstition, it is important to investigate Luke's other use of δηώθφ in the speech of Paul (Ac.26:14).