10 ■ 15
Table 5.8
ACTUAL AND HYPOTHETICAL Xaj Rural-Male, 1985
^aj (actual)
7 •* Aaj
(hypothetical) ^aj** ~ ( ^ a j ' ^aj*)
10-14 85.3 72.5 12.8 . 15-19 73.5 67.5 6.0 20-24 61.5 63.9 -2.4 25-29 60.4 65.6 -5.2 30-34 61.8 66.1 -4.3 35-39 65.2 67.0 -1.8 40-44 68.0 68.9 -0.9 45-49 70.4 70.6 -0.2 50-541 76.1 74.4 1.7 55-59 79.5 75.4 4.1 60-64 82.8 76.8 6.0 65+ 84.0 78.0 6.0
Source: calculated from Table 5.6 and Table 5.7
The difference between the actual and hypothetical Xaj curves is shown in Figure 5.4. If the actual and hypothetical values of Xgj for each age group were equal, this would imply that the shape of the U-curve would be entirely due to education. In other words, the decline in the share of agricultural labour force by age was only determined by education. However, this is not completely correct. The values of Xaj (the difference between the actual and hypothetical value of X^ as shown in Table 5.8 have both positive and negative values at different age levels, indicating that there are some other factors affecting the distribution of the agricultural share of the labour force. In addition, the different values are also due to the extreme value of pjj at ages 10-14 and
15-19 which affect the n j value.
A positive value of X^j implies that people have a tendency to remain in agriculture
• • • ^ %
in spite of their education, while a negative value of Xgj implies people have an
• • • ]|(
inclination to move out from agriculture. The positive values offXaj at age 10-19 in 1985 could be attributed to social factors. Relatively young people are much influenced by their parents in making decisions to separate from their family. On the other hand,
the positive values of A.aj at age over 50 could have a different explanation. These people may have less opportunity, compared with young people, to find jobs outside agriculture. It seems that, realising they had little chance of finding a job elsewhere, agriculture was the last resort for them.
Those aged between 20 and 49 (especially between 20-34) have tended to move out from agriculture to an even greater extent than their educational attainment alone would suggest This is indicated by the negative values of A.aj . While the two extreme age groups (below 19 and over 55 years of age) remained in agriculture because of parental pressure or inertia, the middle age groups have moved away, influenced by education and other economic factors. Those who moved out from agriculture could be absorbed in the non-agricultural sector in rural areas or could migrate to cities. Suharso et al. ( 1976, pp.30-35) suggested that for males, the important reasons for migration were education and the search for a "better life".
5.3.3 Rural Females
A marked difference in educational level by age for the rural female labour force is shown in Table 5.9, similar to the pattern for rural males. The proportion of those with no education increases as age increases, while the proportion of those who completed primary school or more declines as age increases. Moreover, the younger are more educated than the older as measured by average years of schooling. The share of the agricultural labour force by age reaches its minimum level at age 15-24 (Table 5.10). It follows a U-curve (Figure 5.3), but one which it is flatter than the U-curve for males (Figure 5.2). Contrary to rural males, it seems that the share of employment for rural females relies more on family than on individual characteristics.
Applying the formula (5.3) above for females, the hypothetical value of A.^ is presented in Table 5.11. It indicates that the value of A.^ is quite small. This implies that education is a very significant factor in determining the distribution of agricultural share
of the rural female labour force by age. This is demonstrated by the almost identical
3fC
shapes of the hypothetical and actual U-curves (Figure 5.5). The positive value of Ä.aj for most age groups indicates that females have a greater tendency to remain in the agricultural sector in spite of education. This is probably due to cultural factors.
The negative value of Xgj of 1.3 at age 60-64 seems to be caused by the extreme values of probability (pjj) for the Junior and Senior High School categories. Hence, the negative values of Xaj at the end of age brackets almost certainly does not suggest a tendency for older woman to move away from agriculture. Those who do move from agriculture may migrate to cities. According to Suharso et al. (1976, pp. 30-35) the reasons for female migration were generally to follow parents, or spouse/relatives. However, it may also happen that some females find jobs within the rural areas in the non-agricultural sector. This employment pattern will be examined in detail in Chapter
6.
Ta b l e 5 .9
PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL LABOUR FORCE BY AGE AND EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT, RURAL-FEMALES, 1985
(Wji)
NAS DFPS PS JHS SHS UNI Total MYS
10-14 7.2 58.7 33.9 0.1 0.0 0.0 100.0 3.8 15-19 10.9 35.1 45.8 7.2 1.0 0.0 100.0 4.6 20-24 14.3 39.3 32.4 5.2 8.3 0.6 100.0 4.7 25-29 19.6 42.6 28.3 3.9 4.9 0.7 100.0 4.0 30-34 23.8 42.8 25.4 3.5 4.2 0.4 100.0 3.7 35-39 34.1 40.4 19.9 2.3 2.9 0.4 100.0 3.0 40-44 48.3 34.1 13.9 1.6 1.9 0.2 100.0 2.3 45-49 58.4 30.4 9.0 1.1 1.1 0.0 100.0 1.7 50-54 69.6 23.8 5.7 0.5 0.4 0.0 100.0 1.1 55-59 74.6 20.8 4.1 0.3 0.1 0.0 100.0 0.9 60-64 80.5 16.0 3.2 0.1 0.1 0.0 100.0 0.7 65+ 86.5 11.1 2.1 0.3 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.5 All Ages 36.6 35.4 21.9 2.9 2.9 0.3 100.0 3.0
Source : as for Table 5.6
note: NAS: Never attended school, DFPS: Did not finish Primary School, PS: Primary School, JHS: Junior High School, SHS: Senior High School, UNI: University/Academy/Diplomas, MYS: Mean Years of Schooling.
TABLE 5 .1 0
PERCENTAGE SHARE OF AGRICULTURAL SECTOR IN TOTAL LABOUR FORCE BY AGE AND EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT, RURAL-FEMALE, 19 8 5
(Pji>
NAS DFPS PS JHS SHS UNI Total MYS
10-14 78.6 70.9 61.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 68.0 3.7 15-19 74.8 62.0 58.5 55.6 22.5 0.0 60.9 4.3 20-24 73.4 65.9 62.2 47.4 12.3 1.1 60.0 3.9 25-29 74.4 67.7 62.4 44.7 6.4 1.2 63.1 3.4 30-34 73.6 67.8 59.6 40.5 4.0 0.0 63.2 3.0 35-39 71.1 69.3 64.2 35.8 3.3 3.5 66.0 2.6 40-44 70.9 68.3 64.9 36.3 3.3 0.0 67.2 1.9 45-49 70.5 69.6 63.0 41.6 8.4 0.0 68.5 1.5 50-54 68.8 70.3 61.8 29.8 30.7 0.0 68.4 1.1 55-59 69.0 71.4 64.9 47.1 16.5 0.0 69.2 0.9 60-64 67.8 71.6 57.7 •) *) 0.0 68.1 0.7 65+ 61.6 65.1 62.7 44.2 0.0 0.0 61.9 0.5 All Ages 70.2 67.8 61.4 46.1 8.6 1.2 64.7 2.6
Source : as for Table 5.6
note: NA S: N ever attended school, DFPS: Did not finish Primary School, PS: Primary School, JHS: Junior High School, SHS: Senior High School, UNI: U niversity/Academ y/Diplom as, MYS: Mean Years o f Schooling.
*) The values o f probability in these cells are excluded due to extrem ities. This could be due to a statistical error in enumeration, and due to a small sample size in these cells.
Ta b l e 5.11
ACTUAL AND HYPOTHETICAL Xaj RURAL-FEMALE, 1 9 8 5
(Xaj) (X.aj ) ^aj -(^aj'^aj )
10-14 68.0 65.7 2.3 15-19 60.9 63.0 -2.1 20-24 60.0 59.6 0.4 25-29 63.1 62.2 0.9 30-34 63.2 63.2 0.0 35-39 66.0 64.9 1.1 40-44 67.2 66.5 0.7 45-49 68.5 67.7 0.8 50-54 68.4 68.7 -0.3 55-59 69.2 69.2 0.0 60-64 68.1 69.4 -1.3 65+ 61.9 69.6 -7.7
F i g u r e 5 . 5