The present study highlighted the experience of interpersonal aspects of the participant’s masculine identity formationandhow they felt their masculinity was linked with male bonding and enhanced in certain contexts with other males e.g. when playing sports. The majority of the participants described the significance of being strong and stoic in the face of difficult emotions possibly in adherence with masculine ideology. This may have the potential to
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develop into non-acceptance of and suppression of emotions and thoughts which have been shown to link with depressive symptomology according to existing studies (Amstadter & Vernon, 2008; Wenzlaff & Wegner, 2000; Campbell-Sills, Barlow, Brown & Hofmann, 2006; Gratz & Roemer, 2004 and Hayes et al., 2000). Suppression is an unhelpful coping strategy experienced by many of the participants. In addition, research has linked restrictive expression of emotions and suppression to insecure attachment styles (Land, Rochlen, & Vaughn, 2011; Schwartz, Waldo & Higgins, 2004).
Emotional regulation models (Gross, 1998; Gross 2007) are relevant as they discuss expressive suppression such as not crying when experiencing emotional arousal and cognitive reappraisal which is the reframing of an emotion to be less evocative than it is e.g. reframing failure as it’s the participation that counts (Gross & John, 2003). The latter has been linked with high ratings of well-being (Gross & John, 2004) and the former linked with depression and negative social outcomes (Richards, Butler & Gross, 2003; Gross & John, 2003) and high levels of experiencing negative emotions (Butler, Lee & Gross, 2007). The present study evidenced participants expressed emotional suppression by not engaging with and openly displaying their emotions, help seeking or appearing frightened in front of others.
Negotiating interpersonal masculinity also involved the participants discussing experiences of male relating. Research by Bird (1996) focuses on homosociality which is the “nonsexual interpersonal attractions held by men (or women) for members of their own sex” (Bird, 1996, p.121). Literature on homosociality demonstrates its link with sexual, competitive and social behaviours (Flood, 2008). Johnny in particular spoke of the importance of sexual prowess and performance with women being integral to his self-esteem and self-concept which links with research findings stating that male bonding may also be cemented through the act of heterosexual sex (Flood, 2008). Homosociality also endorses the differences between men and women through separation in social groupings and also between hegemonic and non- hegemonic masculinities. Hegemonic masculinity influences the overall nature of gender relationships. It has been proposed by Bird (1996) that behaviours which challenge hegemonic masculinity are seen as less masculine and are consequently disregarded or ostracised. This would include homosexual masculinity which would be labelled as too highly feminised (Connell, 1992).
In relation to the participants discussing male relating there was a common theme evidenced in that there was a shared reluctance to show and share emotions. The participants reported
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finding aspects of this shameful and incongruent with their beliefs pertaining to their masculinity. The majority of participants discussed supressing or rejecting vulnerable parts of the self. From the present study’s findings it is possible to postulate that this male inexpressiveness of vulnerability is linked with a fear of being rejected due to expressing emotions.
Participants in this study also discussed holding an admiration and respect for their fathers or other role models such as sportsman. Greg refers to his father as an aspirational role model and appears to feel fortunate he had his father as a role model. His father appears to model and embody what Greg aspired to which was a sense of fairness and justice. He uses the term “hero worship” which links with Bly’s (1990) masculine myths and a moral sense of fairness which he goes on to discuss as being something his father modelled to him and he took away as intrinsically important to his sense of self. Role modelling in males can also be linked to research for those with absent fathers that suggest that the result of an absent father could lead to emotionally displacing on to other role models such as celebrity figures (Pittman, 1993). This may be particularly relevant for Chris who had the experience of an absent father and identified with extreme sports and action men who appear to personify masculine qualities that he perhaps wishes to possess.
Wade (1998) proposed the Male Reference Group Identity Dependence (RGID) which stems from a combination of reference group theory and ego identity development theory. RGID relates to the present study in the context of male relating and role modelling with regards to how men relate with their masculinity and other men. RGID is the degree to which men are contingent on a reference group for defining their gender role identity. This theory offers a means to understand an individual’s relationship to a group and the associations that this may then exert on their value system. This is also said to be intrinsically tied to the variances in their masculine ideology being linked to diversities in men’s reference groups. The conceptual underpinning being an individual’s psychological connection with other men and their level of ego identity development are imperative to gender role identity. This theory supports the current study where the participant’s masculinity is formed through internalising representations of masculinity related to their reference groups as demonstrated in particular by Chris. The participant’s accounts are also supported by research which illustrates the importance of the internalization of socio-cultural values in the experience of body image
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(Cusamano & Thompson, 1997). Additional research into male relating from a qualitative paradigm may lead to insights into better understanding group identity variances, ruptures and self-concept formation and how these may present in a counselling setting.
This research builds on the limited qualitative research available on the aging male body and masculinity and also takes into account body image and the injured male body in the context of relating to psychological well-being. The findings convey the importance of psychological well-being linking with the functionality of the body and how this ties with being a man. The findings also convey the importance of the cultural context of the participants and the manner in which this appeared to shape how the participants made sense of their body and masculinity which warrants further research. This research supports existing research in demonstrating that participants who experienced body image issues such as dissatisfaction or injury had experienced low self-esteem, eating disorder pathology, self-harming, low mood, anxiety, pressure to conform to normative masculinity and depression (Olivardia et al., 2004; Kimmel & Mahalik, 2005; Agliata & Tantleff-Dunn, 2004; Cafri et al, 2005, Furnham & Calnan, 1998; Polivy & Herman, 2002). This research also supports and further builds on existing findings in illustrating that men have to be at the point of an emotionally extreme state before seeking help with psychological distress. This is particularly relevant in the field of counselling psychology when considering how vulnerable and high risk male patients may present at the point of referral or in relation to their help-seeking behaviours.