Parte I: Primeros pasos con Informatica Analyst
Tarea 3. Editar las reglas de expresión
Agriculture, farm and non-farm wage labor,
migration, caste occupations, running rice and flour mills, plying autos, running private telephone booths and general shops, and selling milk are some of the income sources in Dokur. Households have more diversified sources of livelihood as majority of households have acquired knowledge, education and skills. The share of crops, labor and livestock in the net household incomes has declined. Net incomes from crop production have fallen drastically due to a decline in cropped area under paddy and groundnut and also due to the increasing cost of cultivation in the last 10 years.
With agriculture’s decline in importance over the years, the non-farm sector, caste occupations and migration became more important sources of income. Table 17 compares the share of different sources of income in the net annual income of households in 1975-78 and 2007-08. Despite the general decline in the viability of agriculture, net household incomes increased. Net household annual income and per capita income of sample households increased by 83% and 70% respectively in 2001-06 compared to 1975-78 (Rao 2009).
Between 1975-78 and 2001-06, there were drastic changes in the distribution of net incomes. The share of net crop income fell significantly, from 46.1% in 1975-78 to a mere 8% in 2001-06. During the same period, the share of income from farm labor declined drastically from 46.3% to 11.1% and the share of non-farm income (including caste occupation and migration) increased from a mere 5.6% to 73.7%. It may be noted that the trend is not significantly different during the normal year (2007-08) and drought years (2001-06), except for a measurable change in crop livestock and farm labor
as sources of income as shown in the last two columns of Table 17. Income from caste occupations and migration were classified under other sources in the 1975-78 survey but with its measurable increase, was listed separately in 2001-06. All the above changes increased in real terms as the values of 1975-78 were adjusted for the prices of 2001-06.
By and large, income shares of crops, livestock and
agricultural labor declined over the years, while those from non-farm income, caste occupations, migration and other sources increased. Income sources have become more diversified now than three decades ago. The net income earned from sheep and goats was substantial in the village. Both sheep and buffaloes contribute to income gain.
Caste occupations and income from migration have emerged as important sources of income, in the same way as sale of milk has become significant in certain households in the village.
Sources of livelihood. The decline in income from crop production has been primarily due to
droughts and consequent diversification of income outside agriculture. Non-farming activities such as business, self-employment, migration, plying autos, driving, tailoring and salaried jobs were sought as alternative options. New livelihood opportunities were created for households that had grown richer due to increase in land values, enabling them to invest in education or business.
Poorer households were left with the option of taking up non-farm labor activities by migrating to cities and other places for higher wages.
Table 17. Share (%) of different sources of income in the net annual income of VLS households, 1975-78 and 2007-08.
Sources of income 1975-78
2001-06 (Drought years)
2007-08 (estimates*) (Normal years)
Crops 46.1 8.0 13.6
Livestock 2.0 7.3 9.3
Farm labor 46.3 11.1 7.1
Total farm 94.4 26.4 30.0
Non-farm labor 5.6 49.8 47.5
Caste occupation 0.0 5.0 5.1
Migration 0.0 18.9 17.4
Total 100 100 100
*Based on ICRISAT follow-up survey 2008.
Source: Singh et al. 1982 for 1975-78 and Rao 2009 for 2001-06.
Self-employment through caste occupation in the non-farm sector is common.
Table 18. Percentage of households engaged in primary and secondary occupations in Dokur between 1975 and 2007.
Occupation
Primary source Secondary source
1975 1989 2001 2007 1975 1989 2001 2007
Agriculture 53 44 18 21 45 51 25 30
Business 4 5 2 2 5 4 1 1
Carpentry 2 2 1 1 - -
-Farm work 24 33 17 22 28 30 37 40
Government job 3 2 2 2 5 2 1
-Migration earnings - - 37 30 - - 4 12
Milk sale - - 1 2 - - 4 4
Private job - - 2 4 - - 1 3
Regular job - 1 - 1 - - 2
-Sheep rearing 5 - 4 5 3 8 1 2
Toddy sale - - 2 3 - - - 2
Washing clothes 1 1 1 1 - - - 1
Contract labor - - 2 1 - - 3
-Others 10 14 11 5 15 5 20 5
Source: Deb et al. 2002 and VLS Census: 1975, 1989, 2001 and 2007.
In 1975, over 77% of households’ main income came from agriculture and related work. By 2007, only 43% of households depended on agriculture and agriculture related activities whereas 57% depended on non-agricultural income sources. Table 18 provides insights into primary and secondary occupations in Dokur between 1975 and 2007.
Income increase from out-migration were enabled by higher literacy rates and greater
exposure which facilitated their participation in external labor markets and salaried jobs.
Migration. Labor tends to migrate when local
employment opportunities are inadequate. Prospects of better wages and year-round employment also encourage migration. Income from seasonal migration in 2007 (30% households) and income from agriculture and related work (21% agriculture, and 22% farm work) were equally important. This marked a drastic change since 1975-78 and goes to show that while households Non-farm activities are sought as alternative sources of income.
having adequate land may prosper through modern agricultural production technologies, households with almost no land may opt for seasonal migration as a main source of livelihood.
Migration to far off places such as Hyderabad to work in construction projects has been increasing and has become an important source of income for many poor families in Dokur, especially when rainfall plays truant. A broad assessment of
migration trends reveals that seasonal migration is the most important form of labor mobility for the poor, especially in drought-prone Dokur. Though rural-to-rural migration continues to be important, rural-to-urban migration appears to be growing faster because of the numerous opportunities in urban construction, manufacturing and service sectors. Seasonal migrants return to the village before the monsoon to continue work on their fields if the monsoon is good. Otherwise, a great proportion of them migrate in search of
employment.
Many households in Dokur mainly depend on labor earnings though they own land. Non-availability of
employment opportunities in the village has led to migration to cities such as Hyderabad, Pune, Goa, Mumbai, Surat, Baroda and Ahmedabad. Migrants seek non-farm jobs such as driving, mud work, construction, watchman and canal digging and caste occupations including washing clothes, carpentry, goldsmith and toddy tapping (Table 19).
Among the total households in Dokur in 2007, more than 30% were involved in seasonal out-migration as a source of livelihood. Almost 60% of the migrant households belonged to the Madiga and Telaga castes (Table 20). Most migrant households belong to the Backward Castes and Scheduled Castes, indicating that these households are under tremendous pressure to secure their livelihoods within the village but are forced to migrate due to insecure employment opportunities.
Limited seasonal out-migration from Dokur started in the 1970s. However, the trend has significantly increased since 1992-93 due to greater population pressure and non-availability of year-round work within the village (FGMs 2007-08). The more
Labor tends to migrate when local employment opportunities are inadequate.
educated, skilled and literate population of the village are finding salaried jobs for higher wages in towns and cities. About 1000 people out of 2816 (more than 35%) of Dokur’s population are seasonal migrants (within the state of AP) to Hyderabad, Nizamabad, Pochampadu and Mahabubnagar, and outside the state to Gujarat and Maharashtra.
Five to six years ago, when irrigated paddy was the most labor intensive crop grown in both rainy and postrainy seasons in Dokur, farmers used to face labor shortage during the peak season and both male and female labor could get employment within the village throughout the year.
Table 19. The nature and extent of migration in Dokur, location of employment and wage rates.
Nature of employment Distance Place Gender Wage rate
Non-farm work like canal digging, construction, laying roads, hamali (loading and unloading), etc.
100-1000 kms Hyderabad in AP; Pune, Goa and Mumbai in Maharashtra;
and Surat, Baroda, Ahmedabad in Gujarat
Male, female Rs 10,000 in advance (1000 per month) plus free food and accommodation
Washermen and barbers (caste occupations)
> 600 kms Goa and Pune Male Rs 3000-4000 per month
Driving of jeep, taxi and trucks, etc
125 kms Mahabubnagar and Hyderabad
Male Rs 2500-3000 per month
Service boys in hotels, bar-cum-restaurants and lodges
125 kms Mahabubnagar and Hyderabad
Male Rs 2000 per month and free food and accommodation Laying underground cables
and water pipes
25-125 kms Mahabubnagar and Hyderabad
Male, female Rs 80-100 per day
Driving autos 5-125 kms Devarkadra, Mahabubnagar
and Hyderabad
Male Rs 150-200 per day
Monthly salaried jobs in shops, companies and other establishments
5-125 kms Devarkadra, Mahabubnagar, Hyderabad
Male Rs 2500-3500 per month
Maid servants in homes 25-125 kms Mahabubnagar and Hyderabad
Female Rs 400-800 per month
Carpenter, goldsmith, barber and other caste occupations
10-30 kms Devarkadra, Mahabubnagar and Hyderabad
Male Rs 100-150 per day
Source: Focus Group Meetings, 2007-08.
Table 20. Seasonal migration of households by caste, 2007-08.
Caste No. of households Households (%) Migrant households (%)
Boya 27 5 11
Chakali 10 2 4
Gowda 4 1 2
Madiga 55 11 22
Musti 21 4 8
Mala 2 0 1
Reddy 25 5 10
Telaga 90 17 36
Vadla 2 0 1
Others1 12 2 5
1. Includes Balija, Brahmin, Golla Jogi, Hamsala, Mangali, Medari, Vysya and Yerukula.
The situation has changed dramatically with persistent drought and uneven distribution of rainfall at critical stages of crop growth becoming the norm in the last six years. Productivity of both irrigated and rainfed crops has declined and the area under paddy has drastically declined due to non-availability of water in tanks/wells and failure of borewells. This has created low demand for labor in the village, forcing villagers to seek employment opportunities elsewhere. About 30 service caste households (washermen and barbers) have
permanently migrated to Goa and Pune. Majority of laborers have migrated to Hyderabad to pursue mud work, construction, work as hamalis (loading and unloading), take up private salaried jobs as watchman, driver or waiter or run an STD booth.
Laborers receive Rs 60-75 per day depending upon the type of work and gender. Monthly salaries vary between Rs 1500 and Rs 3000.
Out-migration to Maharashtra and Gujarat has been increasing in Dokur in the last 3-4 years because each worker is paid an interest-free advance of Rs 10,000-12,000 by the labor contractor who belongs to Dokur or its surrounding villages. Advances are used to clear old debts, repair/construct houses and meet marriage expenses, and are deducted from the salary. Workers are employed for 9-10 months on a monthly salary of Rs 800-1000. They are entitled to holidays on national festivals and once a fortnight. Contractors provide them free
transportation to and from the work place, food and accommodation. A contract document is drawn up between the contractor and worker in the presence of villagers, containing information about the
advance paid and detailed terms of employment. If a worker leaves the job midway through the contract, he is bound to repay the remaining advance to the contractor at an annual interest rate of 36%.
Information about employment opportunities, nature of work, terms and conditions and wage rates (for men and women) in Hyderabad and other towns trickles down to the village mainly from visiting relatives and migrants. Those who have studied up to class 10 and beyond work on salaried jobs (part and full time) while the rest work as daily-rated workers.
Backward Caste families depend on more
diversified sources of income than those belonging to the Scheduled Caste. Majority of Forward and Backward Caste families have 2-4 sources of income, while Scheduled Caste families have at most two sources of income.
Migration and commuting are very likely to continue because of wage differentials, improving communications, infrastructure and transport facilities. However, migration continues to be highly expensive and risky, especially for the poor, because the overall policy environment and institutional system is not migrant friendly. Travelling, finding accommodation, negotiating work and pay rates, accessing government services (health, education and subsidized food) and remitting money home are all constraining to poor migrant workers.
Livestock. Over the recent years, the contribution of livestock to the overall income of the household
While the overall livestock population in the village fell, small ruminants were increasingly reared by households.
in Dokur has declined. Insufficient fodder, increase in maintenance cost, shortage of grazing land and labor shortage have been some important reasons.
The number of draft cattle declined very sharply.
Around 60% of farmers belonging to the small and medium farm size group did not own even a pair of bullocks but were hiring bullocks or tractors to complete farm operations. While the livestock population (cows, young cattle, and unproductive animals) in the village fell by 60% from 1975-76 to 2007-08 (see Table 9), small ruminants reared by households increased because of high meat prices.
In fact, rearing of sheep and goats is an important caste occupation (golla or kurma) in the village.
Farmers belonging to small and medium farm size and labor groups were able to acquire land from big landowners. They leased-in or shared-in land from big farmers who have reduced their livestock resources by 60% due to labor shortage. About 60%
of small and medium farmers do not have bullock pairs. Some households are managing with
improved she buffaloes and jersey cows to sell milk.
It has become difficult to find grazing land as common property resources have fallen drastically due to population pressure. In this vicious circle, a reduction in the number of livestock led to low or non-application of farmyard manure for dryland crops.