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The following sections briefly describe BMPs for agricultural, forestry, and urban sources of Cryptosporidium; more detailed descriptions are provided in Appendix E. Your WCP plan must discuss how these or any other BMPs you choose will be implemented in the area of

influence. EPA Section 319 grants and Clean Water State Revolving Fund loans can be used for nonpoint sources and watershed management purposes.

Agricultural BMPs

Management Programs

The U.S. Department of Agriculture recommends the following "control points" for controlling pathogens (USDA 2000):

• Preventing initial infection by controlling pathogen import to the farm. • Controlling the reproduction and spread of the pathogen throughout the farm. • Managing waste.

• Controlling pathogen export from the farm.

PWSs should work with local soil conservation districts or cooperative extensions for technical assistance with BMPs.

BMPs that can reduce pathogen loading include the following: • Composting.

• Waste management (manure storage and land application). • Grazing management.

• Feedlot runoff diversion. • Buffer or filter strips.

Composting

• Can effectively reduce pathogen concentrations.

• Entire waste mass should be uniformly treated and there should be no cold spots.

Buffer Strips

• Provide buffer between area of manure application or grazing and adjacent streams or lakes.

• USDA (2000) recommends that buffer and filter strips be considered secondary practices for pathogen control and be used in conjunction with control measures.

Grazing Management

• Managed grazing can be cheaper and less environmentally damaging than confined feeding and unmanaged grazing. It decreases feed, herbicide, equipment, and fertilizer costs, while reducing erosion and increasing runoff infiltration and manure decomposition rates (Ohio State University Extension, undated).

• In managed, or rotational, grazing, a sustainable number of cattle or other livestock graze for a limited time (usually 2-3 days) on each pasture before being rotated to the next pasture.

Manure Storage

• Manure storage facilities allow farmers to wait until field conditions are more suitable for land application.

• Manure storage facilities should be designed to prevent discharge through leaching or runoff. They should be lined, and if possible, covered. Facilities that are not covered should be designed to contain precipitation and runoff from a 25-year 24-hour storm.

Land Application of Manure

• Several precautions taken in manure application can prevent runoff from entering surface water, reducing the likelihood of Cryptosporidium contamination.

• Manure should not be applied to frozen or saturated ground or before predicted rainfall, or near tile drains or dry wells or to land subject to flooding.

• For pastures to be used for grazing, waste should be stored for at least 60 days and then applied at least 30 days before the scheduled grazing period to avoid infection of the animals.

Feedlot Runoff Diversion

• Diverting clean water before it drains into the feedlot can significantly reduce the amount of wastewater that needs to be managed.

• All roofs that could contribute to feedlot runoff should have gutters, downspouts, and outlets that discharge away from the feedlot.

Forestry BMPs

• Logging can cause increased erosion, leading to increased runoff and making it more likely that Cryptosporidium present in wildlife will reach the source water. Logging can also cause elevated sediment levels, resulting in high turbidity, which affects water treatment efficiency. Examples of forestry BMPs are listed below:

- filter strips

- streamside or riparian management zones

- logging roads should be constructed to minimize runoff

- road runoff should be diverted away from streams and prevented from channelizing - loggers should minimize soil disturbance and compaction on skid trails

Urban/Suburban BMPs

See http://www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/mtbfact.htm for fact sheets on technologies and BMPs municipalities can use to reduce contamination from wastewater and stormwater.

Buffer Zones

• For watersheds in urban areas, buffer zones help to protect development on the floodplain from being damaged when the water is high, as well as protect the stream from the effects of the development.

• The extent to which buffer zones reduce Cryptosporidium loading is not well understood; therefore, they should be used to augment, rather than replace, other watershed

management practices.

Dry Detention Basins

• Dry detention basins temporarily store stormwater runoff and release the water slowly to allow for settling of particulates and the reduction of peak flows.

Infiltration Devices

• Infiltration devices remove pathogens and particles by adsorption onto soil particles and filtration as the water moves through the soil to the ground water. Infiltration devices include (NALMS 2000):

- infiltration basins - infiltration trenches - dry wells

Sand Filters

• Sand filters can be used to treat stormwater runoff from large buildings and parking lots.

Wet Retention Ponds

• Ponds can effectively reduce suspended particles and, presumably, some pathogens, by settling and biological decomposition.

• There is concern, however, that ponds attract wildlife that may contribute additional fecal pollution to the water, rather than reducing contamination.

Constructed Wetlands

• Constructed subsurface flow wetlands (where wetland plants are not submerged) can reduce Cryptosporidium and bacteria concentrations in wastewater (Thurston et al. 2001). • Wetlands may also be useful for treating stormwater or other polluted water.

Runoff Diversion

• Structures can be installed in urban settings to divert clean water flow before it reaches a contamination source. Structures that channel runoff away from contamination sources include stormwater conveyances, such as:

- swales - gutters - channels - drains - sewers

Pet Waste Management

• Municipalities can implement pet waste management programs to encourage pet owners to properly collect and dispose of their animals' waste.

Water Conservation

• Can help preserve the amount of water available for use, especially during times of drought.

• Can also decrease the amount of wastewater and stormwater generated, thereby protecting the quality of the water supply (U.S. EPA 2002d).

• The following are examples of water conservation methods: - low-flow toilets and showerheads

- reducing lawn watering

Low Impact Development

• Low impact development tries to reduce the amount of impervious cover, increase natural lands set aside for conservation, and use pervious areas for more effective stormwater treatment of residential and commercial developments.

Septic Systems

• Failing septic systems can result in clogging and overflow of waste onto land or into surface water.

• Water systems should work closely with the local regulatory authority to ensure that septic system codes are being properly enforced and to strengthen codes where necessary.

• PWSs should encourage residents with septic systems in the watershed to understand their systems and the proper maintenance that their systems require. Cooperative extensions can work with residents on this issue.

Wildlife BMPs

• Steps taken to prevent wildlife from contaminating source water vary with the source and type of wildlife. The following are examples of wildlife BMPs:

- boats with noisemakers to scare seagulls and geese away

- fences on the water's edge to keep out larger land animals and humans