Becky: But I thought color-blindness was _____
through the mother.
Stuart: Are you sure?
Becky: Pretty sure. I think I remember reading that it's the mothers _________ that control whether someone is color-blind or not.
Stuart: But I learned in school that it depended on the father!
5. Our cars are cheaper and more reliable than those of our competitors. So, ____________, we should be selling far more automobiles than they. _________, however, we can barely succeed in keeping our factories open.
Complete the sentences below, using the given expressions.
Some expressions may be used more than once.
Microbe chromosome cell case organism genes single-celled multicellular
6. Humans having two X chromosomes (XX) are female, and those having an X and a Y chromo-some (XY) are male. For this reason, the X ___________ is popularly associated with female characteristics, and the Y___________ with male
characteristics. In reality, however, the situation is more complex than this. True, the X chromosome contains genes which have no complement on the Y. However, contrary to what one would expect, these "odd" _________ on the X chromosome tend to determine male rather than female characteristics.
7. A ___________ is simply an organism that is too small to be seen. But not all of these organisms have the same size: they may have only one ________, or they may have many. If it is the _________ that they have only one _________, they are called "____________"; if they have many, they are
"_____________."
8. Louis Pasteur, a pioneer in the field of microbiology, determined the role of microorganisms in disease, but it was Robert Kock who discovered a method of proving that a specific __________ causes a specific disease.
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LESSON 2
As you saw in the last lesson, there are three types of dependent clauses. They are:
Noun clauses
Adjective clauses
Adverb clauses
In this lesson, you will learn additional ways in which these clauses are tested on the TOEFL. The important point to keep in mind is:
A dependent clause cannot form a sentence by itself. In a grammatically correct sentence, the dependent clause is always attached to an independent clause.
Noun Clauses
Noun clauses are dependent clauses that function as nouns.
Therefore, a noun clause can occupy any position that a noun does. Below are examples of noun clause functions that are commonly found on the TOEFL. (For a brief review of grammatical functions, see the Grammar Review.) As a subject:
Whether he will come is still uncertain.
As a direct object:
I don't know whether he will come.
As the subjective complement (predicate nominative):
The question is whether he will come.
As the object of a preposition:
We talked all night about whether he would come.
There are, of course, many noun functions that have not been illustrated above. However, for the TOEFL, the above
positions are the most common. The words or not after whether are optional and do not change the meaning or construction of the sentence.
SESSION B: THREE TYPES OF NOUN CLAUSES
There are three types of noun clauses.
(1) Some noun clauses come from statements.
That Dolores plays the piano beautifully is a generally accepted fact.
(2) Some noun clauses come from wh- questions.
I don't know what you need.
(3) Some noun clauses come from yes/no questions.
Whether she is going to be there is not yet known.
You see from the three noun clauses above that each one is introduced by a different word: that, what, or whether. In fact, there are many more ways of introducing a noun clause. In order to know how to introduce a noun clause, you first have to know which of the three kinds of noun clauses it is.
We will discuss each of these three types in turn. Then we will consider a special type of noun clause involving the
subjunctive.
Noun Clauses Derived from Statements
Sentence #1 Dolores plays the piano beautifully.
Sentence #1 This is generally accepted fact.
Combined: That Dolores plays the piano beautifully is a generally accepted fact.
This type of sentence can be rephrased thus:
It is a generally accepted fact that Dolores plays the piano beautifully.
Note that when the noun clause coming from a statement is being used as the object of a verb, the Connector that can sometimes be omitted.
Sentence #1 I believe something.
Sentence #2 The governor will fight against higher taxes.
Combined: I believe (that) the governor will fight against higher taxes.
An important exception in this type of noun clause occurs when the noun clause is used as the Subject of a preposition. In this case, that is not used to introduce the noun clause. Instead, what is used immediately after the preposition.
Sentence #1 I am against something.
Sentence #1 You have said something.
Combined: I am against what you have said.
Sentence #1 I don't want to deal with something.
Sentence #2 He deals with something every day.
Combined: I don't want to deal with what he deals with every day.
The next session of this lesson will discuss another occasion when the word what introduces a noun clause—noun clauses derived from wh- questions.
Make sure that you know when to introduce a noun clause with what, and when to introduce one with that.
Noun Clauses Derived from Wh- Questions
A noun clause derived from a wh- question begins with the same wh- word (who, what, where, when, why, and how) that is used to make the question from which it is derived.
Sentence #1 How long is the drive?
Sentence #2 This will decide the time we leave.
Combined: How long the drive is will decide the time we leave.
It is very important to observe:
In a noun clause, normal word order is used and the auxiliary do is not used.
Sentence #1 What do you need?
Sentence #2 I don't know this.
Combined: I don't know what you need.
INCORRECT: I don't know what do you need. INCORRECT:
I don't know what you do need.
Noun Clauses Derived from Yes/No Questions A noun clause derived from a yes/no question begins with the word whether or the word if.
Sentence #1 Is the president going to be on television tonight?
Sentence #2 My schedule depends on this.
Combined: My schedule depends on whether the president will be on television tonight.
Or: My schedule depends on if the president will be on television tonight.
Note that noun clauses derived from yes/no questions also use normal word order and do not use the auxiliary do.
Sentence #1 Is the telephone working?
Sentence #2 I don't know this.
Combined: I don't know if the telephone is working.
I don't know whether the telephone is working.
INCORRECT: I don't know is the telephone working.
A noun clause doesn't use do, does, or did as auxiliaries, and never has its words ordered in the form of a question.
There is no difference in meaning between the use of whether and if. However, if is not used when the noun clause derived from a yes/no question is the subject or the object of a preposition.
Sentence #1 Did the students already finish the exam?
Sentence #2 This has not yet been reported to me.
Combined: Whether the students already finished the exam has not yet been reported to me.
INCORRECT: If the students already finish the exam has not yet been reported to me.
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The Subjunctive in Noun Clauses
On the TOEFL, you might encounter a fairly unusual type of noun clause in which the noun clause verb is in the simple form. The verb in this type of noun clause is in the subjunctive mode.
After expressions of desire, command, requirement and suggestion, the that- noun clause may take its verb in the simple form.
In this type of noun clause, the expression of command, suggestion, etcetera, may be a verb, an adjective, or a noun.
VERB: I recommend that he take the bus. (not takes) ADJECTIVE: It was imperative that John call at just that moment. (not called)
NOUN: It is a city ordinance that all pet owners keep their animals on a leash.
Other words and expressions that can introduce this form of the subjunctive are:
Don't be fooled into thinking that a sentence like "I insist he stay at home" is incorrect because it is missing the third-person singular -s of the simple present tense.
Note that some of these expressions will be found from time to time without the simple form in the noun clause.
The police suggested that the criminal was hiding in the abandoned building on Eighth Street,
The reason for not using the simple form in the above sentence is that the subject of the main clause (police) is not exercising force onto the subject of the noun clause (the criminal).
Instead, the police here are simply making a guess about the location of the criminal. All of the cases in which the simple form is used in noun clauses after such expressions must include the idea of force or obligation.
PRACTICE #1—Noun Clauses
Circle the correct answer choice for each question.
1. Ancient philosophers believed —— around the earth.
(A) to revolve the sun (B) the sun revolved (C) in revolving the sun (D) the sun revolving 2. It is a federal law —— vaccinated before entering the first grade.
(A) for children be (B) so that children will be (C) that children be (D) requires children to be 3. The National Bureau of Labor Statistics figures show that —— are especially devastated by inflation.
(A) the working classes (B) the classes working (C) the classes that working (D) working the classes 4. Surveys of recent armed conflicts show —— war is extremely rare between democratic nations.
(A) where (B) that (C) there (D) then
5. Industrial psychologists have found that most people ——
to work even if they became very wealthy.
(A) continuing (B) to continue (C) would continue (D) will continue
6. —— was one of the greatest discoveries in establishing Newton's theory of gravity.
of building a capitalistic system are great.
D
8. What air travel would become such an inexpensive and
A B
efficient way of travel was probably not envisioned
C
by the earliest aviators.
D
9. A recent Galiup poll showed than the senator was considered
A B C
too old to run for the presidency.
D
10. Before issuing its final report, the EPA will confer with
A
the people who live near the site in order
B
to determine that the social impact might be.
C D
SESSION C: two types of adjective clauses
An adjective clause is a dependent clause used to give information about a noun in the sentence. Another term for this kind of clause is relative clause.
An adjective clause has one of two functions:
1) A restrictive adjective clause (or essential clause) limits or restricts the noun so that the reader does not confuse the noun in question with any other noun.
2) A nonrestrictive adjective clause (or nonessential clause) adds extra information to the noun that is not really essential to the message of the whole sentence.
Restrictive Adjective Clauses
a restrictive clause does not appear with commas, while a nonrestrictive clause always appears with commas.
In general, if the clause describes a proper noun (the name of a specific person, place, or thing), it is nonrestrictive and thus uses commas. The reason for this is that a proper noun refers to a unique person, place, or thing.
Mr. Rogers, who telephoned last night, won't be able to come this afternoon.
Albany, which is the capital of New York State, is located in the northern part of the state.
Make sure you know the difference between restrictive and nonrestrictive adjective clauses. The distinction is frequently tested on the TOEFL.
Connector Words for Adjective Clauses (Relative Pronouns)
Which is used for objects, who and whom for people, and that for objects and people.
Using Which
When the noun being described is a thing, the adjective clause begins with which.
The table which you bought at the antique fair is beautiful.
The Washington Post, which is published daily, is read by millions.
Using Who and Whom
When the noun being described is a person, the connector words who or whom are used.
If the noun being replaced is the subject of the verb in the adjective clause, who is used.
The man who marries that woman will be the luckiest man on Earth.
Whom is used if the noun being replaced is the object of the verb or of a preposition. (Below we are talking about a specific girl in a specific park).
Sentence #1 The girl has been in a terrible accident.
Sentence #2 We saw the girl in the park yesterday.
(The direct object of the verb is the girl.) 102
Combined: The girl whom we saw in the park yesterday has been in a terrible accident.
Sentence #1 Janet Reno has served in many public offices in her successful career.
Sentence #2 President Clinton appointed Janet Reno as Attorney General. (The direct object of the verb is Janet Reno.)
Combined: Janet Reno, whom President Clinton
appointed as Attorney General, has served in many public offices in her successful career.
Note: In contemporary English, who can replace whom. This is more common in speech or informal writing than in formal writing or on examinations.
The girl who we saw in the park yesterday was in a terrible accident last night.
Using That
It is very common for that to be used for either objects or people.
The table that you bought at the antique fair is lovely.
She's with the same man that I saw her with last week.
However, the relative pronoun that can never be used in a nonrestrictive adjective clause.
CORRECT: Virginia, which is said to be quite beautiful, is the home of many senators and representatives.
INCORRECT: Virginia, that is said to be quite beautiful, is the home of many senators and representatives.
The relative pronoun that never introduces a nonrestrictive adjective clause. Therefore, if the adjective clause has commas,
it can never be introduced with that.
Using Prepositions in Adjective Clauses
When the relative pronoun replaces the object of a preposition, there are usually two ways of constructing the sentence. One way is to put the preposition before the relative pronoun; the other is tо put the preposition at the end of the adjective clause.
Sentence #1 The man is leaving.
Sentence #2 You spoke to the man. (The man is the object of the preposition to.)
Combined: The man tо whom you spoke is leaving.
Or: The man whom you spoke to is leaving.
For the TOEFL, you should know both constructions. Often on the test you will be asked to supply a missing preposition for a relative pronoun. The example below illustrates this.
The method —— products are recycled requires a strict separation of white and colored paper.
(A) which most paper (B) by which most paper (C) that most paper (D) most paper
Examination of the sentence tells us that it consists of two finite verbs. For this reason it must contain two clauses. We can see that the sentence can be divided into two parts:
The method requires a strict separation of white and colored paper. Products are recycled —— a method. A preposition must be inserted into the space to make the second sentence complete. Possible prepositions are through, by, or in. Looking at the choice of answers, we see that only one offers a
preposition, and that this preposition fits grammatically into the original sentence of the question. (B) is the correct answer.
Omission of the Relative Pronoun
If the relative pronoun is the object of its clause, the relative pronoun can be omitted in restrictive clauses.
If the relative pronoun is the subject of its clause, it cannot be omitted.
CORRECT: I suggest that you read the book that won the Pulitzer Prize last year.
INCORRECT: I suggest that you read the book won the Pulitzer Prize last year.
A good way to remember this point is to keep in mind that a clause is a group of related words with a subject and a finite verb. Without the word which, the adjective clause in the sentence above has no subject. Keep in mind that you cannot omit a relative pronoun when it functions as the subject of the clause.
Using Where and When in Adjective Clauses
Occasionally where and when are used to build adjective clauses. Where is used to describe a location noun and when is used to describe a time noun. In this case, when and where are called relative adverbs.
The city where I grew up is known for its extremely high crime rate.
She would never forget the day when Sam arrived.
It is very important to remember that when the relative adverbs, where or when, are used, prepositions are not necessary. Compare:
The city that I grew up in is known for its high crime rate.
The city where I grew up is known for its extremely high crime rate.
Do not use prepositions with where or when in an adjective clause.
Showing Possession in Adjective Clauses
Sometimes it is necessary to show possession in an adjective clause. The word whose can be used to introduce an adjective clause. It is usually used when the possessor is a person, but it can also be used for objects.
The chairperson, whose committee was so successful last year, has been reelected for another term.
The table whose leg is broken cannot be fixed.
A prepositional of phrase can also be used when the possessor is a thing. The formula for such constructions takes the form:
noun + of + which.
Such relative constructions are usually separated by commas.
The table, the leg of which is broken, cannot be fixed.
(More commonly expressed as:
The table that has a broken leg cannot be fixed.)
We used the red book, the title of which I cannot remember.
Note: The two examples above are quite formal and are not often used in modern American English. However, they do frequently appear on the TOEFL. (B ) which became a medical student in Amsterdam in the 1960s (C) who were a medical student in Amsterdam in the 1960s (D) that is a medical student in Amsterdam in the 1960s 2. The movie The Wizard of Oz, —— is taken from the book of the same name, has been a children's favorite for years.
(A) the title of which (B) which title (C) that's title (D) the title of that
3. The Aurora Borealis, — in the Southern Hemisphere, is not an entirely understood phenomenon.
103
(A) cannot be seen (B) that it cannot see (C) it is never seen (D) which is never seen
4. Musical concerts, —— popular music of various kinds, have become one of the most common forms of entertainment in the United States.
(A) to feature (B) feature (C) which featuring (D) which feature
5. Some literary critics felt Pearl Buck, —— the daughter of missionaries, allowed her upbringing to interfere with her objectivity as a writer.
(A) who (B) had been (C) who was (D) being one 6. The portion of a mountain —— trees cannot grow is called the tree line.
(A) there (B) that (C) so (D) where
7. Many cough suppressants contain alcohol, whose is
A B
generally not recommended in treating small children.
C D
8. Wine should be grown in regions that favorable soil and
A
climatic conditions will likely lead to a successful harvest.
B C D
9. The early settlers of New England were Pilgrims whose
A B
came to the New World for both religious and economic
C D
freedom.
10. Some psychologists have suggested that people are more
A
Below is a list of common words that begin an adverb clause.
The list is not complete. To get a fuller view of all of the possibilities, you should consult a good grammar of American English.
The difficult task with adverb clauses on the TOEFL is choosing the correct introductory word for the meaning of the sentence. It is therefore essential to know the exact meaning of
The difficult task with adverb clauses on the TOEFL is choosing the correct introductory word for the meaning of the sentence. It is therefore essential to know the exact meaning of