The first two studies in the thesis provide findings on IS project success and its influencing factors. In our first study (Section 3.1.), we were able to develop a nascent theory, which indicates how different percep-tions and evaluapercep-tions of IS project success can develop in one organization that is actually very tightly knit.
We identified a set of mechanisms based on our critical-realist approach (Wynn & Williams, 2012). The critical realist approach for this initial explorative part of the dissertation project allowed us to identify the causal mechanisms behind these different perceptions of IS project success on different levels of the multi-channel-retailer and particularly for the end-users in its e-commerce department. We identified three im-portant mechanisms that help to explain the evolving perceptions of end users during an IS project. These are the narrative of success, hierarchical groupthink, and inherent fatalism. The first is the focus in man-agement’s communication on motivating employees by showing them that they are successful and taking part in something meaningful for FASHION and the multi-channel retailer as a whole. The second is the common belief of all end users in the e-commerce department’s narrative of success. The third is the inher-ent fatalism of end users, which they use to struggle calmly with their inadequate or ineffective tools. These three mechanisms influenced end users sensemaking process (Weick, 1995) and let them develop an at-mosphere where motivated reasoning (Kunda, 1990; Rousseau & Tijoriwala, 1999), which is the reliance on a biased set of cognitive processes, was paramount. It is likely to be important for explaining end users ability to focus on the aspects under their control. Instead of giving up and resisting the change (e.g.
Selander & Henfridsson, 2012) they developed a reliable system (Weick & Roberts, 1993) of employees and their knowledge of technology, which allowed them to deal with the adversity of an ill-conceived tech-nological change in their work system (e.g. Alter, 2013). The common experience of overcoming the ad-versity created by internal projects within a group of fellow “fighters” was then perceived as IS project success. Individuals described their personal growth in phases of difficulty as the main positive experience.
This perception overshadowed the project and its original purpose of improving the working conditions over the course of the project.
In our second study (Section 3.2.), we analyzed whether there a particular configurations of user involve-ment and participation (UIP) in different phases of an IS impleinvolve-mentation project that are related with IS project success in terms of the ability to use an IS effectively. We used usability (Brooke, 1996) as a proxy for that. The results in this study confirm the generally positive findings for the relationship of UIP and IS project success (Bano & Zowghi, 2015). More specifically, we identify user participation in the require-ments phase and the appropriate degree of user representation as the critical conditions for perceived usa-bility after the project’s completion. This finding adds to anecdotal evidence that UIP should be focused on requirements acquisition (Bano & Zowghi, 2015). The findings indicate that a higher level of user partici-pation will not always result in project success measured in the perceived usability of the implemented software. It is important that representative end users participate in the implementation project presumably because they can provide the critical information that is needed to make those adjustments that considerably improve the usability of the implemented IS.
Beyond our initial studies during which we first explored the issue of different perceptions of success and then followed up with an investigation of the organizational, i.e. managerial means to increase the chance that end users feel enabled to use an IS effectively, we also studied users’ means in the post-implementation phase which allow them to use an IS more effectively. In our first study in this research area (Section 4.1.), we analyze the influence of learning on effective use. This conceptual analysis reveals that learnings via social interaction, self-learning, and learning via training are the forms of learning, which are likely to influence the learning actions conceived by Burton-Jones and Grange (2013). Learning via social interac-tion involves individual users learning from their peers, i.e., mainly colleagues and the superiors during use. Self-learning can involve users’ initiative during use, such as learning-by-doing or deliberate acts to explore the systems features or the manual for the system. Furthermore, in many organizations users learns from attending courses in classroom settings to learn the basic features and the user interface of a system.
We believe that learning via training predominantly affects how users know about the basic features of a system. Based on current insights, we also come to the conclusion that self-learning is likely to have a positive influence on learning the meaning of the data in the system and helps individuals to take an in-formed action based on insights from the system. Our conceptual research suggests a similar effect for learning via social interaction. The current findings are a preliminary result and warrant future research to identify the empirical evidence on the conceptualized relationships.
However, we decided to focus our research on the influence of examination of the effect of workarounds on effective use (Section 4.2.), since workarounds can be one of the results of users consolidated knowledge and therefore the consequence of learning, especially when they are put in place to enable system use (e.g.
Vassilakopoulou et al., 2012). We find in our case study of a supply chain management (SCM) system in use in a chemical company (CeCo) that those workarounds enhance the effective use of SCM that are designed in line with the goal shared in the work system. Thus, we find that workarounds positively influ-ence effective use and its sub-constructs of transparent interaction, representational fidelity, and informed action. We identify several workarounds that allow end users to have access that is more transparent to the user interface of the IS. Some of these workarounds also enable employees to improve the representational fidelity of the system by allowing them to access and manipulate the representations. These workarounds therefore enable users to work with a user interface that they understand and with data that is true. The kind of workarounds that we identified allow to improve the representational fidelity of the information provided by the system and thereby allow end users to take more informed action based on information from the system.
We also decided to investigate the relationship of user adaptation within the system with effective use, as it was proposed by Burton-Jones & Grange (2013). In this research effort (see Section 4.3), we identified the conceptual link between Sun’s model of adaptive system use (ASU) (2012), successfully replicated Sun’s model (2012), and operationalized the concept of effective use. This operationalization took place in two stages. First, we developed an initial set of items (see Table 20) and evaluated this set in the context of the loan management system (LMS) of BANK and with MS Excel users in the UK with a panel. We were able to show that the relationship of full-mediation of the relationship between transparent interaction and informed action by representational fidelity existed in both cases. Nevertheless, some issues with the meas-urement instrument drove us to develop another set of items, which we evaluated in the context of the multi-channel-fashion retailer MCRF. With the new measurement instrument, we did not find evidence for full yet partial mediation. Thus, we find that the ASU model can be replicated and that we find mixed empirical evidence on the proposed hierarchical relationship of the subdimensions of effective use. We also compare a model with the new measures with a model based on alternative measures for transparent interaction and representational fidelity and find that the alternative measures explain less variance in the dependent vari-able of informed action. Nevertheless, these findings are initial efforts, which warrant further research and analysis for researchers to conclude that effective use needs to be measured as the originally conceptualized combination of transparent interaction, representational fidelity, and informed action.
In sum, the research in this thesis provides findings on the overall research question, which organizational and individual means in the (post-) implementation phase lead to effective use of an IS. In the first study, we focus on the organizational means in IS projects and show the managerial influence on the sensemaking process of individual users. Moreover, we evaluate in the second study in which phase of an implementation project organizations, i.e. their managers, can involve individual users most effectively. This thesis also provides answers on the individual as well as organizational means in the post-implementation phase that
can lead to an improved effective use of an IS. We outline the likely effect of different forms of users’
learning of the system on effective use and we present how users’ workarounds that are sanctioned by management can lead to effective use of an IS. We also conceptualize the relationship of ASU and effective use and show that we cannot identify an empirical relationship between the two constructs in their current conceptualizations. Finally, we provide a refined measurement instrument for effective use (see Table 22).
Thus, we make some findings that constitute a theoretical contribution, yet also have inconclusive results that warrant analysis in future research.