PROCESOS DE DISEÑO PARA VIDEOJUEGOS EDUCATIVOS Y
4. Procesos de Diseño para Videojuegos Educativos y Arquitecturas de Soporte Educativos y Arquitecturas de Soporte
4.3. Arquitecturas de soporte para juegos educativos
4.3.3. Educational Game Architecture (EGA)
column. But this was exceptional as exceptional as the somewhat similar formation of Cumberland's mass of British and Hanoverian infantry at Fontenoy, which, though often described as a column, had originally consisted of three
successive lines of deployed battalions, which were ultimately constricted into a mass by lateral pressure. Some of Mar‐
shal Broglie's and Ferdinand of Brunswick's fights during the Seven Years' War were also fought in a looser order of battle than was normal.
Normally the tactics of the eighteenth century were directed to the smashing up of one of the enemy's wings,
either by outflanking it, or by assailing it with very superior forces, while the rest of the enemy's army was " contained "
by equal or inferior numbers, according as the assailant had more or less troops than his enemy. The decisive blow was very frequently delivered by a superior force of cavalry concentrated upon the striking wing, which commenced
the action by breaking down the inferior hostile cavalry, and then turned in upon the flank of the infantry of the Ming which it had assailed. Such a type of battle may sometimes be found much later, even in the Peninsular War, where Ocana was a perfect example of it.
Speaking roughly, however, the period of set battles v fought by enemies advancing against each other in more
or less parallel lines ended with the outbreak of the war of the French Revolution. V There had been a fierce controversy in France from 1775 to 1791 between the advocates of the linear, or Frederician, battle‐order headed by General Guibert, and the officers who wished to introduce a deeper formation, which they claimed to have learnt from the instructions of Marshal Saxe of whom the chief was General Menil‐Durand. The former school had triumphed just before the war began, and the Btglement d'Infanterie of 1791 accepted aU their views. It was on this drill‐book that the French infantry stood to fight in the following year, when the war on the Rhine and in Belgium began.*
* For an analysis of the controversy, see Dumolin's preface to hia
64 WELLINGTON'S INFANTKY TACTICS
But the attempt of the first generals of Revolutionary France to fight on the old linear system was a failure.
The troops of the Republic had been demoralized by the removal or desertion of the greater proportion of their commissioned officers, and their cadres had been hastily filled with half ‐trained recruits. At the same time hundreds of new units, the battalions of volunteers, had been formed on no old cadre at all, but, with officers and men alike little better than untrained civilians, took the field along with the reorganized remains of the old royal army. It is hardly necessary to remark, that these raw armies suffered a series of disgraceful defeats at the hands of the Austrian and other allied troops in 1792‐93. They were beaten both in tactics, in manoeuvring, and in fire‐discipline by the well‐
drilled veteran battalions to which they were opposed.
The French Republic, when it came under the control
of the Jacobins, tried to set matters right by accusing its generals of treason, and arrested and guillotined a consider‐
able proportion of the unfortunate commanders ‐in‐chief to whom its armies had been entrusted. But neither this heroic device, nor the sending to the armies of the well known " representatives en mission " from the National Assembly, who were to stimulate the energy of the generals, had satisfactory results. As the representatives were
generally as ignorant of military affairs as they were self‐
important and autocratic, they did no more than confuse and harass the unhappy generals on whom they were
inflicted.
One thing, however, the Jacobin government did accom‐
plish : it pushed into the field reinforcements in such myriads that the armies of the allies were hopelessly out‐
numbered on every frontier. *‐The first successes of the Republican armies in the North were won by brute force, by heaping double and triple numbers upon the enemy .*c And the new tactics of the Revolutionary leaders were
Precis des Guerres de la Revolution, and compare Colin's Education Militaire de Napoleon.
TACTICS OP THE FRENCH BEVOLUTION 65
evolved from a consciousness of superiority in this respect, a determination to swamp troops that manoeuvred better
than their own, by hurling preponderant masses upon them, regardless of the losses that must necessarily be suffered.
For they had inexhaustible reserves behind them, from the newly‐decreed levies en masse, while the bases of the allies were far off, and their trained men, when destroyed, could only be replaced slowly and with difficulty.
When the generals of the Revolution threw away the old linear tactics learned in the school of Frederic the Great, as inapplicable to troops that could not manoeuvre with the same speed and accuracy as their enemies, the impro‐
vised system that succeeded was a brutal and wasteful one, but had the merit of allowing them to utilize their superiority of numbers. It is possible that those of them who reasoned at all upon the topic and reasoning was not easy in that strenuous time, when a commander's head sat lightly on his shoulders saw that they were in a manner utilizing the idea that had been tried in a tentative way
by Maurice de Saxe, and by one or two other generals of the old wars the idea that for collision in long line on a parallel front, partial attacks in heavy masses on designated points might be substituted. But it is probable that there was more of improvisation than of deliberate tactical theory in the manoeuvres of even the best of them.
The usual method was to throw at the hostile front a very thick skirmishing line, which sheathed and concealed mass of heavy columns, concentrated upon one or two
critical points of the field. The idea was that the front line jf tirailleurs would so engage the enemy, and keep him
3upied all along his front, that at the crucial section of
combat the supporting columns would get up to striking listance with practically no loss, and could be hurled,
while still intact, upon those points of the hostile array which it was intended to pierce ; they would go through by their mere impetus and weight, since they were only exposed to fire for a few minutes, and could endure the loss suffered F
66 WELLINGTON'S INFANTRY TACTICS
in that time without losing their elan or their pace. The essential part of the system was the enormously thick and powerful skirmishing line : whole battalions were dispersed in chains of tirailleurs, who frankly abandoned any attempt at ordered movement, took refuge behind cover of all
sorts, and were so numerous that they could always drive in the weak skirmishing line of the enemy, and get closely engaged with his whole front. The orderly battalion‐
volleys of the Austrian, or other allied troops opposed to them, did comparatively little harm to these swarms, who were taking cover as much as possible, and presented no closed body or solid mark for the musketry fire poured upon them. It looks as if the proper antidote against such a swarm‐attack would have been local and partial cavalry charges, by squadrons judiciously inserted in the hostile line, for nothing could have been more vulnerable to a sudden cavalry onslaught than a disorderly chain of light troops. On many occasions in the campaigns of
1792‐93 the French infantry had shown itself very helpless against horsemen who pushed their charge home, not only in cases where it was caught unprepared, but even when
it had succeeded in forming square with more or less prompti‐
tude.* But this particular remedy against the swarm‐
attack does not seem to have been duly employed, and indeed many parts of Flanders are so cut up by small enclosures, that the use of cavalry as a universal panacea might often have proved impossible.
The masses which supported the thick lines of tirailleurs were formed either in columns of companies or columns of
" divisions," i.e. double companies. f In the former case the eight companies, each three deep, were drawn up behind each other. In the latter the front was formed by a
" division," and the depth was only twelve men. In either
* See especially the record of the great English and Austrian charges against French infantry at Villers‐en‐Cauchies, Beaumont, and Willems (Fortescue's British Army, Iv. 240‐56).
f The French battalion then comprising nine companies, of which one, the Voltigeur company, would not be in the column.
TACTICS OF THE FRENCH COLUMN 67
case none but the two front ranks could use their firearms properly, and the rest were useless save for the impetus that they gave the rolling mass. But such a column, Avhen properly sheathed by the skirmishing line till the last moment, generally came with a very effective rush against the allied line opposed to it, which would have been already engaged with the tirailleurs for some time, and had pro‐
bably been much depleted by their fire. It is equally clear that, without its protective sheath of skirmishers, such a heavy column would have been a very clumsy
instrument of war, since it combined the minimum of shooting power with the maximum of vulnerability. But when so shielded, the columns which attacked in masses at a decisive spot, leaving the rest of the hostile line " con‐
tained " by an adequate force, had a fair chance of pene‐
trating, though the process of penetration might during the last two or three minutes be very costly to the troops forming the head of the column.
The best early summary of this change in French tactics which I know occurs in an anonymous English pamphlet published in 1802, which puts the matter in a nutshell.
' The French army was composed of troops of the line without order, and of raw and undisciplined volunteers.
They experienced defeats in the beginning, but in the meantime war was forming both officers and soldiers. In an open country they took to forming their armies in columns
instead of lines, which they could not preserve without difficulty. They reduced battles to attacks on certain points, where brigade succeeded brigade, and fresh troops supplied the places of those who were driven back, till they were enabled to force the post, and make the enemy give way. They were fully aware that they could not give
battle in regular order, and sought to reduce engagements to important affairs of posts : this plan has succeeded.
They look upon losses as nothing, provided they attain
their end ; they set little store by their men, because they have the certainty of being able to replace them, and the
68 WELLINGTON'S INFANTRY TACTICS
customary superiority of their numbers affords them an advantage which can only be counterbalanced by great skill, conduct, and activity." *
After 1794, when the Republican armies had won their
first series of great successes, and had driven their enemies behind their own frontiers, there is a distinct change in the tactical conceptions of the French. The troops had im‐
proved immensely in morale and self‐confidence : a neAv race of generals had appeared, who were neither obsessed by
reminiscences of the system of Frederic the Great, like some of their predecessors, nor spurred to blind violence and the brutal expenditure of vast numbers of men like certain others.
The new generals modified the gross and unscientific methods of the Jacobin armies of 1793‐94, which had won victory indeed, but only by the force of numbers and with reckless loss of life. There remained as a permanent lesson, how‐
ever, from the earlier campaigns two principles the avoidance of dispersion and extension, by which armies
" cover everything and protect nothing," and the necessity of striking at crucial points rather than delivering " linear "
battles, fought out at equal intensity along the whole front.
In general French tactics became very supple, the units manoeuvring with a freedom which had been unknown to earlier generations. The system of parting an army into divisions, now introduced as a regular organization,! gave to the whole army a power of independent movement
unknown in the days when a line of battle was considered a rigid thing, formed of brigades ranged elbow to elbow, none of which ought to move without the direct orders of the general‐in‐chief . A front might be composed of separate divisions coming on the field by different roads, and each adopting its own formation, the only necessity being that
* From an essay entitled Character of the Armies of the various European Powers, in a collection called Essays on the Theory and Practice of the Art of War. 3 vols. London : Philips & Co.
t Though Marshal Broglie had used something like an approach
ta permanent divisions in the Seven Years' War : see Colin's Trans‐
formations de la Guerre, p. 97.
DISADVANTAGES OF THE COLUMN 69
there should be no great gaps left between them. As a matter of fact this last necessary precaution was by no means always observed, and there are cases in the middle, and even the later, years of the Revolutionary War, in which French generals brought their armies upon the field in such disconnected bodies, and with such want of co‐operation and good timing, that they were deservedly defeated in detail.* Bonaparte himself is liable to this charge for his order of attack at Marengo, where he committed himself to a general action before the column of Desaix was near enough to the field, and as nearly as possible suffered a crushing reverse for the want of a mass of troops whose action was absolutely necessary to him. Hoche, Jourdan, and Moreau (the last especially), all committed similar mistakes from time to time. But these errors were at least better than an adhesion to the stereotyped tactics of the older generation, where formal set orders of battle had been thought absolutely necessary.
As a rule we find the French operating in the later years of the Republic with methods very different from those of 1793, with skill and swiftness, no longer with the mere brute force of numerical superiority, winning by brilliant
manoeuvring rather than by mere bludgeon work. Yet, oddly enough, there was no formal revision of official tactics ; the Reglement d'Infanterie which had been drawn up in 1791, whose base was the old three‐deep line of Frederic the Great, had never been disowned, even when it was for the most part disregarded, in the period when swarm‐attacks of tirailleurs, supported by monstrous heavy columns, had become, perforce, the practical method of the French armies. When that unsatisfactory time passed by, the same old drill‐book continued to be used, and was no longer so remote from actual practice as it had been. For
* Colin quotes as bad examples of French armies coming on the field dispersedly, without the proper timing and co‐operation, Wattignies, Noresheim (1796), and all Moreau's operations beyond
the Rhino in that year from Rastadt to Ettlingen (Transformations de la Guerre, p. 99).
70 WELLINGTON'S INFANTRY TACTICS
the use of the deployed battalion began to come up again, as the handiness of the troops increased, and their self‐
reliance was restored. Only the early Revolutionary War had left two marks upon French tactics for hard and
heavy work, such as the forcing of passes, or bridges, or
defiles, or the breaking of a crucial point in the enemy's line, the deep column remained habitually employed : while the
old idea of the orderly continuous line of battle was gone for ever, or almost gone, for (oddly enough) in Napoleon's last and least lucky fight, Waterloo, the order of the imperial host was more like the trim and symmetrical array of a Frederician army than any French line of battle that had been seen for many a year. Certainly it would have pleased the eye of the Prussian king much better than the apparently irregular, though carefully thought out, plans of battle on which Jena or Wagram, Borodino or Bautzen were won.
It would be doing injustice to Napoleon to represent him as a general whose main tactical method rested solely on the employment of massive columns for the critical operation on each battlefield. He was quite aware that infantry ought to operate by its fire, and that every man in the rear ranks is a musket wasted. If the Emperor had any favourite formation it was the ordre mixte, recommended by Guibert far back before his own day, in which a certain combination of the advantages of line and column was obtained, by drawing up the brigade or regiment with
alternate battalions in line three‐deep and in column. This formation gave a fair amount of frontal fire from the alternate deployed battalions, while the columns dispersed among them gave solidity, and immunity from a flank
attack by cavalry, which might otherwise roll up the line.
If, for example, a regiment of three battalions of 900 men each were drawn up in the ordre mixte, with one deployed battalion flanked by two battalions in column, it had
about 730 men in the firing line, while if arranged in three columns, it would only have had about 200 able to use their
THE "ORDRE MIXTE" 71
muskets freely. Still, at the best, this formation was heavy, since all the serried back‐ranks of the flanking battalions had no power to join in the fusillade. For simple fire‐effect it was as inferior to the line as it was superior to the mere column.
Napoleon, however, was certainly fond of it. .From the crossing of the Tagliamento (1797), when he is first recorded to have used it, he made very frequent employ‐
ment of it. In a dispatch to Soult, sent him just before Austerlitz, he directed him to use it " autant que faire se pourra." It is curious, however, to note that the marshal, less than a week after, having to strike the
decisive blow in that battle, did not, after all, use the ordre mixte, but fought in lines of battalions in " columns of
divisions," as he particularly mentions in his report to the Emperor.*
But the ordre mixte was certainly employed again and
again, not only in those parts of the battle where Napoleon was simply " containing " his enemy, and where he was merely keeping up the fight and pinning the adversary to his position, but also on the crucial points, where he was endeavouring to deal his main blow. We have notes to
the effect that Lannes' Corps at Jena, Augereau's at Eylau,
the effect that Lannes' Corps at Jena, Augereau's at Eylau,