Efecto antifúngico sobre A. flavus AFUNL5, de los SLC de leches fermentadas a 30 ºC con gránulos de kefir CIDCA AGK1 y CIDCA AGK2

The scholarship on Indigenous and Coloniser contact seems vast and very specific for each Country. The specification as well as the micro historical approach, limits this thesis to New Zealand, hence the emphasis in the discussion on literature is limited too. As shown, many

183

Parsonson, "The Pursuit of Mana."

Kerry Howe, "The Fate of the 'Savage'," NZJH 14, no. 1 (1980).

For further reading about ‘dual agency’ see: Giselle Byrnes, The Waitangi Tribunal and New Zealand History (Melbourne; Auckland: Oxford University Press, 2004). p.113ff.

184

Paul Monin, "Maori Economies and Colonial Capitalism," in The New Oxford History of New Zealand, ed. Giselle Byrnes (South Melbourne: Oxford University Press Australia and New Zealand, 2009).

185

48 international scholars have written about a ‘fluid space of interaction’ between two peoples. This thesis tries to define this space as the Middle Ground a concept of interactions between Coloniser and Indigenous for New Zealand. This concept finds detailed examination in the Methodology chapter of this thesis.

Other New Zealand scholars have also applied this framework to their research. Judith Binney in her overview of the settlement of Te Kerikeri emphasised positive interaction between Māori and Pākehā.186 More recently we can see the suggestion of a space of positive interactions between Pākehā and Māori in Brad Patterson’s paper about Scots and Māori in Turakina which also alluded to the existence of the Middle Ground. Using a micro-historical approach, his descriptions, suggestions and findings provided evidence of the space of positive interaction in regards to time and geography proposed by this thesis.187 Most intriguingly, and giving room for further thought, Patterson suggested that Turakina was able to delay the destruction of the Middle Ground until the late 1880s and was even able to preserve a positive relationship between the races during the war of the 1860s. Patterson proposed that this was possible due to a different land situation than, for example, in Wellington, Nelson and New Plymouth. Patterson’s study indicates that further research on the existence of positive relations between settler and Māori might reveal significant differences in different regions and that the micro approach could help make these visible.

Most recently, and highly valued by many reviewers, Vincent O’Malley explored the Middle

Ground within the Northland region of New Zealand in pre-Treaty times. His work seems, so

far, to be the only overall attempt to apply the Middle Ground to New Zealand explicitly. Building on his report to the Waitangi Tribunal, O’Malley argued in The Meeting Place: Māori

and Pākehā Encounters 1642-1840 that the earliest contacts in the north of Aotearoa/New

Zealand fostered the existence of the Middle Ground because settlers relied heavily on Māori and that Indigenous did not feel threatened by the small number of ‘whites’.188 O’Malley suggested that with the signing of the Treaty mutual need, as one of the contributing factors to the Middle Ground decreased, and Pākehā began to take over the country and establish a strong colonial power. O’Malley also proposed the possibility that the Middle Ground existed longer in different places in New Zealand but that by 1860 its destruction was inevitable. O’Malley’s works has been welcomed by many scholars has a new way of seeing the early

186

Judith Binney, Te Kerikeri 1770-1850: The Meeting Pool (Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 2007).

187

Patterson, "'It Is Curious How Keenly Allied in Character Are the Scotch Highlander and the Maori': Encounters in a New Zealand Colonial Settlement."

188

O'Malley and Hutton, "The Nature and Extent of Contact and Adaptation in Northland, C.1769-1840." O'Malley, The Meeting Place: Māori and Pākehā Encounters, 1642–1840.

49 encounters in New Zealand. However, Bain Attwood in his Book Review in the NZJH in 2013 pointed out that O’Malley might have missed an important part of Whites Middle Ground concept: the idea of the effects of cultural misunderstandings.189 For sure Attwood makes an interesting point however, his attack on O’Malleys academic credibility when defining him as a “public rather than an academic historian” seems overstated. O’Malley engages clearly with the concepts of cultural misunderstandings and showcases that these led to an exchange of knowledge about each other and ultimately a new way of interaction.

Drawing the Middle Ground more in an indigenous viewpoint John Sutton Lutz’s work about

Myth and Memory draws on Whites concept and places the ‘indigenous contact story’ for

different peoples within a wider context.190 Lutz’s collection of essays gave agency to the Indigenous voice which is often missing in the context of colonisation and the so-called first contact. This missing voice is also noted by Linda Tuhiwai Smith in her ground-breaking work,

Decolonizing Methodologies which reminded researchers that a great deal of history has been

written ‘about Māori’ but much less has been written ‘with Māori’.191 Smith criticised the fact that the Coloniser view is evident in most of the scholarship but the voice of Māori is mostly forgotten, whereas the real encounter with Māori was different from the adventurous tales that were modified back home in the ‘empire’; a point that has also been made, for example, by Salmond. This research seeks to address this situation of misinterpretation through critical reflection on settlers’ interaction and encounter with Māori by identifying colonising perspectives and ideologies and using Smith’s decolonising methodologies.

2.7 Conclusion

To conclude, a significant amount of literature has been published in the fields of immigration and colonisation of New Zealand, but most seems either dated or lacks critical reflection. The field of personal encounter between the two peoples, Pākehā and Māori, or even other indigenous encounters, seems to be a field of emerging scholarship. Large gaps in the research on New Zealand and its colonial past are becoming increasingly filled and situated within the general context of worldwide colonial practice.

189

Bain Attwood, "Review: The Meeting Place: Maori Pakeha Encounters 1642-1840. By Vincent O' Malley. Auckland University Presse, Auckland, 2012," NZJH 47, no. 1 (2013).

190

John Sutton Lutz, Myth and Memory: Stories of Indigenous-European Contact (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2007).

191

50 Using a micro historical approach, in contrast to a macro approach of standard works like Belich, this thesis focuses in particular on aspects of Māori–Settler encounters between 1840- 1860 in Wellington, Nelson and New Plymouth by using private records rather than the official reports of the New Zealand Company and Crown. By only focusing on the private record, in contrast to the wider literature, I will shine a new light on the experiences of early settlers and Māori in New Zealand. Much has been published about settlers’ voyages to New Zealand and also about issues associated with the hard pioneer life. However, specific experiences about Indigenous or specific groups seem less represented or covered far too generally. This project seeks to address this gap by using a micro approach, focusing on particular groups of settlers of the 19th century as well as to distinguish between time, place and source to reveal a far more diverse field of Māori-Pākehā interactions as for example anticipated by Ballara.

Extending the works of Salmond, O’Malley and Hamer graphically as well as in regards to time to frame this research I will engage in a discussion on positive interaction between settlers and Indigenous; a concept that has been largely ignored by many studies. By using the concept of the Middle Ground this study creates an international connection, which provides insight into the wider Settler-Indigenous experiences.

Parsonson, Petrie and McAloon for example had clearly shown that there was considerable interest in each other during the contact phase. Often good trading relationships have been established quickly, as shown by O’Malley. Knowledge exchange and the creation of a new place of encounter helped to create what I will call the Middle Ground. Hamers argument of the ‘Urban Frontier’, the place where Settler and Indigenous met finds further support in the letters and diaries that are examined for this thesis. This new space, the Middle Ground was a fluid concept which has been majorly ignored for a long time. As evident in the here examined scholarship, which mainly focused on the negative forces of conflict and war, shows that there is a significant gap in the literature. Both Pākehā and Māori had a significant effect on Aotearoa/New Zealand and through their interaction created something new which will be further examined in this PhD thesis.

51