ASA VI Paciente que requiere una intervención quirúrgica de urgencia Sociedad Americana de Anestesiología
3.2. Durante el Procedimiento
3.2.1. Fármacos Empleados
3.2.1.1.3. Efectos Adversos
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content
3.1 Basic Principles 3.2 Database Security
3.3 Relational DBMS Security
3.4 Proposed OODBMS Security Models 3.5 Security Classification for Information 3.6 Cryptography
3.7 Disaster Recovery Planning 4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Data security is the means of ensuring that data is kept safe fcroorrmuption and that access to it is suitably controlled. Thus data security helps to ensure privacy. It also helps in protecting personal data.
Information security means protecting information and information systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption,
modification, or destruction. The terms information security, computer security and information assurance are frequently used interchangeably.
These fields are interrelated and share the common goals of protecting the confidentiality, integrity and availability of information; however, there are some subtle differences between them. These differences lie primarily in the approach to the subject, the methodologies used, and the
areas of concentration. Information security is concerned with the confidentiality, integrity and availability of data regardless of the form
the data may take: electronic, print, or other forms.
Governments, military, financial institutions, hospitals, and private businesses amass a great deal of confidential information about their employees, customers, products, research, and financial status. Most of
this information is now collected, processed and stored on electronic computers and transmitted across networks to other computers. Should
confidential information about a businesses customers or finances or new product line fall into the hands of a competitor, such a breach of security could lead to lost business, law suits or even bankruptcy of the
business. Protecting confidential information is a business requirement,
and in many cases also an ethical and legal requirement. For tihnedividual, information security has a significant effect on privacy, which is viewed very differently in different cultures.
The field of information security has grown and evolved significantly in recent years. As a career choice there are many ways of gaining entry
into the field. It offers many areas for specialization including Information Systems Auditing, Business Continuity Planning and Digital Forensics Science, to name a few.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, you should be able to:
• understand the concepts of the CIA Trade in respect of information systems security
• know the components of the Donn Parker model for the classic Triad
• identify the different types of information access control and how they differ from each other
• differentiate Discretionary and Mandatory Access Control Policies
• know the Proposed OODBMS Security Models
• differentiate between the OODBMS models
• defining appropriate procedures and protection requirements for information security
• define cryptography and know its applications in data security.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 Basic Principles 3.1.1 Key Concepts
For over twenty years information security has held that confidentiality,
integrity and availability (known as the CIA Triad) are the cporirneciples of information system security.
Confidentiality
Confidentiality is the property of preventing disclosure of information to unauthorized individuals or systems. For example, a credit card transaction on the Internet requires the credit card number
to btreansmitted from the buyer to the merchant and from the merchant to a
transaction processing network. The system attempts to enforce confidentiality by encrypting the card number during transmission, by
limiting the places where it might appear (in databases, log
files,
backups, printed receipts, and so on), and by restricting access to the
places where it is stored. If an unauthorized party obtains the card number in any way, a breach of confidentiality has occurred.
Breaches of confidentiality take many forms. Permitting someone to look over your shoulder at your computer screen while you have confidential data displayed on it could be a breach of confidentiality. If a
laptop computer containing sensitive information about a company's employees is stolen or sold, it could result in a breach of confidentiality.
Giving out confidential information over the telephone is a breach of confidentiality if the caller is not authorized to have the information.
Confidentiality is necessary (but not sufficient) for maintaining the privacy of the people whose personal information a system holds.
Integrity
In information security, integrity means that data cannot be modified without authorization. (This is not the same thing as referential integrity
in databases.) Integrity is violated when an employee (accidentally or
with malicious intent) deletes important data files, when a computer virus infects a computer, when an employee is able to modify his own
salary in a payroll database, when an unauthorized user vandalizes a web site, when someone is able to cast a very large number of votes in
an online poll, and so on.
Availability
For any information system to serve its purpose, the information must be available when it is needed. This means that the computing systems used to store and process the information, the security controls used to protect it, and the communication channels used to access it must be functioning correctly. High availability systems aim to remain available at all times, preventing service disruptions due to power outages, hardware failures,
and system upgrades. Ensuring availability also involves preventing denial-of-service attacks.
In 2002, Donn Parker proposed an alternative model for the classic CIA triad that he called the six atomic elements of information. The elements are confidentiality, possession, integrity, authenticity, availability, and
utility. The merits of the Parkerian hexad are a subject of debate amongst security professionals.
3.1.2 Authenticity
In computing, e-Business and information security it is necessary teonsure that the data, transactions, communications or documents (electronic or physical) are genuine (i.e. they have not been forged or fabricated.)
3.1.3 Non-Repudiation
In law, non-repudiation implies ones intention to fulfill their obligations to a contract. It also implies that one party of a transaction can not deny having received a transaction nor can the other party deny having sent a transaction.
Electronic commerce uses technology such as digital signatures and encryption to establish authenticity and non-repudiation.
3.1.4 Risk Management
Security is everyone‘s responsibility. Security awareness poster. U.S.
Department of Commerce/Office of Security.
A comprehensive treatment of the topic of risk management is beyond the scope of this article. We will however, provide a useful definition of
risk management, outline a commonly used process for risk management, and define some basic terminology.
The CISA Review Manual 2006 provides the following definition of risk management: "Risk management is the process of identifying vulnerabilities and threats to the information resources used by aonrganization in achieving business objectives, and deciding what countermeasures, if any, to take in reducing risk to an acceptable level,
based on the value of the information resource to the organization."
There are two things in this definition that may need some clarification.
First, the process of risk management is an ongoing iterative process. It
must be repeated indefinitely. The business environment is constantly changing and new threats and vulnerabilities emerge every day. Second,
the choice of countermeasures (controls) used to manage risks must strike a balance between productivity, cost, effectiveness of the countermeasure, and the value of the informational asset being protected.
Risk is the likelihood that something bad will happen that causes harm to an informational asset (or the loss of the asset). A vulnerability is a
weakness that could be used to endanger or cause harm to ainnformational asset. A threat is anything (man made or act of nature)
that has the potential to cause harm.
The likelihood that a threat will use a vulnerability to cause harm creates a risk. When a threat does use a vulnerability to inflict harm, it has an
impact. In the context of information security, the impact is a loss of availability, integrity, and confidentiality, and possibly other losses (lost
income, loss of life, loss of real property). It should be pointed out that it is not possible to identify all risks, nor is it possible to eliminate all risk.
The remaining risk is called residual risk.
A risk assessment is carried out by a team of people who hkanvoewledge of specific areas of the business. Membership of
the team
may vary over time as different parts of the business are assessed. The assessment may use a subjective qualitative analysis based on informed
opinion, or where reliable dollar figures and historical information is available, the analysis may use quantitative analysis.
3.1.5 Controls
When Management chooses to mitigate a risk, they will do so by implementing one or more of three different types of controls.
Administrative
Administrative controls (also called procedural controls) consist of approved written policies, procedures, standards and guidelines.
Administrative controls form the framework for running the business and managing people. They inform people on how the business is to be
run and how day to day operations are to be conducted. Laws and regulations created by government bodies are also a type of
administrative control because they inform the business. Some industry sectors have policies, procedures, standards and guidelines that must be
followed - the Payment Card Industry (PCI) Data Security Standard required by Visa and Master Card is such an example. Other examples
of administrative controls include the corporate security policy, password policy, hiring policies, and disciplinary policies.
Administrative controls form the basis for the selection and implementation of logical and physical controls. Logical and physical controls are manifestations of administrative controls. Administrative controls are of paramount importance.
Logical
Logical controls (also called technical controls) use software and data to monitor and control access to information and computing systems. For example:
passwords, network and host based firewalls, network intrusion detection systems, access control lists, and data encryption are
logical controls.
An important logical control that is frequently overlooked is the principle of least privilege. The principle of least privilege requires that
an individual, program or system process is not granted any more access privileges than are necessary to perform the task. A blatant example of
the failure to adhere to the principle of least privilege is logging into Windows as user Administrator to read Email and surf
the WVieobla. tions of this principle can also occur when an individual collects
additional access privileges over time. This happens when employees'
job duties change, or they are promoted to a new position, or thraenysfer to another department. The access privileges required by their
new duties are frequently added onto their already existing apcricveislseges which may no longer be necessary or appropriate.
Physical
Physical controls monitor and control the environment of the work place and computing facilities. They also monitor and control access to and
from such facilities. For example: doors, locks, heating and air conditioning, smoke and fire alarms, fire suppression systems, cameras,
barricades, fencing, security guards, cable locks, etc. Separating tnheetwork and work place into functional areas are also physical controls.
An important physical control that is frequently overlooked is t
sheeparation of duties. Separation of duties ensures that an individual can not complete a critical task by himself. For example: an employee who submits a request for reimbursement should not also be able to authorize payment or print the check. An applications programmer should not also
be the server administrator or the database administrator - these roles and responsibilities must be separated from one another.
3.2 Database Security
Database security is primarily concerned with the secrecy of dSaetcar.ecy means protecting a database from unauthorized access by users
and software applications.
Secrecy, in the context of data base security, includes a variety of threats
incurred through unauthorized access. These threats range from tihnetentional theft or destruction of data to the acquisition of information
through more subtle measures, such as inference. There are tgherne eeerally accepted categories of secrecy-related problems in data base
systems:
1. The improper release of information from reading data that
was intentionally or accidentally accessed by unauthorized
users. Securing data bases from unauthorized access is more
difficult than controlling access to filesmanaged by operating systems. This problem arises from the finer granularity that is
used by databases when handling files, attributes, and values.
This type of problem also includes the violations to secrecy that result from the problem of inference, which is the deduction of unauthorized information from the observation of authorized information. Inference is one of the most difficult factors to control in any attempts to secure data. Because the information in
a database is semantically related, it is possible to determine the
value of an attribute without accessing it directly. Inference problems are most serious in statistical databases where users can
trace back information on individual entities from the statistical aggregated data.
2. The Improper Modification of Data. This threat includes violations of the security of data through mishandling and modifications by unauthorized users. These violations can result
from errors, viruses, sabotage, or failures in the data that arise from access by unauthorized users.
3. Denial-Of-Service Threats. Actions that could prevent users from using system resources or accessing data are among the most serious. This threat has been demonstrated to a significant
degree recently with the SYN flooding attacks against network service providers.
Discretionary vs. Mandatory Access Control Policies
Both traditional relational data base management system (RDBMS) security models and OO data base models make use of two general types
of access control policies to protect the information in multilevel systems. The first of these policies is the discretionary policy. In the discretionary access control (DAC) policy, access is restricted based on
the authorizations granted to the user.
The mandatory access control (MAC) policy secures information by assigning sensitivity levels, or labels, to data entities. MAC policies are
generally more secure than DAC policies and they are used in systems in which security is critical, such as military applications. However, the
price that is usually paid for this tightened security is reduced performance of the data base management system. Most MAC policies
also incorporate DAC measures as well.
3.3 Relational DBMS Security
The principal methods of security in traditional RDBMSs are through the appropriate use and manipulation of views and the structured query
language (SQL) GRANT and REVOKE statements. These measures are
reasonably effective because of their mathematical foundation in relational algebra and relational calculus.
3.3.1 View-Based Access Control
Views allow the database to be conceptually divided into pieces in ways that allow sensitive data to be hidden from unauthorized users. In the relational model, views provide a powerful mechanism for specifying data-dependent authorizations for data retrieval.
Although the individual user who creates a view is the owner and is entitled to drop the view, he or she may not be authorized to execute all
privileges on it. The authorizations that the owner may exercise depend
on the view semantics and on the authorizations that
the oalwlonwered tois implement on the tables directly accessed by the view. For the owner to exercise a specific authorization on a view that he or she
creates, the owner must possess the same authorization on all tables that
the view uses. The privileges the owner possesses on the view adreetermined at the time of view definition. Each privilege the owner possesses on the tables is defined for the view. If, later on, the owner
receives additional privileges on the tables used by the view tahdedsietional privileges will not be passed onto the view. In order to use the
new privileges within a view, the owner will need to create a new view.
The biggest problem with view-based mandatory access controls is that
it is impractical to verify that the software performs the view interpretation and processing. If the correct authorizations are to basesured, the system must contain some type of mechanism to verify the
classification of the sensitivity of the information in the database. The classification must be done automatically, and the software that handles the classification must be trusted. However, any trusted software for the automatic classification process would be extremely complex.
Furthermore, attempting to use a query language such as SQL to specify classifications quickly become convoluted and complex. Even when the
complexity of the classification scheme is overcome, the view can do nothing more than limit what the user sees — it
canno roepsetriacttiontshethat may be performed on the views.
3.4 Proposed OODBMS Security Models
Currently only a few models use discretionary access control measures in secure object-oriented data base management systems.
Explicit Authorizations
The ORION authorization model permits access to data on the basis of
explicit authorizations provided to each group of users. These
authorizations are classified as positive authorizations because they specifically allow a user access to an object. Similarly, a negative authorization is used to specifically deny a user access to an object.
The placement of an individual into one or more groups is based on the
role that the individual plays in the organization. In addition to the positive authorizations that are provided to users within each group, there are a variety of implicit authorizations that may be granted based
on the relationships between subjects and access modes.
Data-Hiding Model
A similar discretionary access control secure model is the data-hiding model proposed by Dr. Elisa Bertino of the Universita‘ di Genova. This
model distinguishes between public methods and private methods.
The data-hiding model is based on authorizations for users to execute methods on objects. The authorizations specify which methods the user is authorized to invoke. Authorizations can only be granted to users on public methods. However, the fact that a user can access a method does not automatically mean that the user can execute all actions associated with the method. As a result, several access controls may need to be performed during the execution, and all of the authorizations for the different accesses must exist if the user is to complete the processing.
Similar to the use of GRANT statements in traditional relational data
base management systems, the creator of an object is able to grant authorizations to the object to different users. The ―creator‖ is also able to revoke
the authorizations from users in a manner similar to REVOKE statements.
However, unlike traditional RDBMS GRANT statements, the data-hiding model includes the notion of protection mode. When authorizations are provided to users in the protection mode, the authorizations actually checked by the system are those of the creator and not the individual executing the method. As a result, the creator is
able to grant a user access to a method without granting the user the authorizations for the methods called by the original method. In other words, the creator can provide a user access to specific data without being forced to give the user complete access to all related information
in the object.
3.5 Security Classification for Information
An important aspect of information security and risk management is recognizing the value of information and defining appropriate
organization, how old the information is and whether or no tihneformation has become obsolete. Laws and other regulatory
procedures and protection requirements for the information.
No ainllformation is equal and so not all information requires the same degree
of protection. This requires information to be assigned a security classification.
Some factors that influence which classification information should be
assigned include how much value that information has to the
requirements are also important considerations when classifying information.
Common information security classification labels used by the business sector are: public, sensitive, private, confidential. Common
information security classification labels used by government are:
Unclassified, Sensitive But Unclassified, Restricted, Confidential, Secret, Top Secret and their non-English equivalents.
All employees in the organization, as well as business partners, must be trained on the classification schema and understand the required security controls and handling procedures for each classification. The classification a particular information asset has been assigned should be reviewed periodically to ensure the classification is still appropriate for
the information and to ensure the security controls required by tchlaessification are in place.
Access control:Access to protected information must be restricted to people who are authorized to access the information. The computer programs, and in many cases the computers that process the information,
must also be authorized. This requires that mechanisms be in place to
control the access to protected information. The sophistication of the access control mechanisms should be in parity with the value of the information being protected - the more sensitive or valuable the information the stronger the control mechanisms need to be. The foundation on which access control mechanisms are built start with identification and authentication.
Identification is an assertion of who someone is or what something is.
If a person makes the statement "Hello, my name is John Doe." they are making a claim of who they are. However, their claim may or may not be true. Before John Doe can be granted access to protected information
it will be necessary to verify that the person claiming to be John Doe really is John Doe.
Authentication is the act of verifying a claim of identity. When John Doe goes into a bank to make a withdrawal, he tells the bank teller he is