Capítulo 3: Análisis de Marco Jurídico en Materia de Deuda Pública, Transparencia
3.3. Propuesta de Alerta de Sobreendeudamiento
3.3.1. Efectos del sobreendeudamiento
After studying this Unit, you should be able to understand the following:
• Outline the meaning and forms of knowledge and its attributes
• Overview the knowledge formation in an organization
• What is organizational knowledge?
• Compare the differences between tacit and explicit knowledge
• Identify the various sources of knowledge
• Describe the different phases of knowledge development 2.3 PERSPECTIVES ON KNOWLEDGE
Unlike capital and labour, knowledge strives to be a public good. Once knowledge is discovered and made public, there is zero marginal cost to sharing it with others. Secondly, the creator of knowledge finds it hard to prevent others from using it. Instruments such as trade secrets protection and patents, copyright, and trademarks provide the creator with some protection.
There are different kinds of knowledge that can usefully be distinguished. Know-what, or knowledge about facts, is nowadays diminishing in relevance. Know-why is knowledge about the natural world, society, and the human mind. Know-who refers to the world of social relations and is knowledge of who knows what and who can do what.
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Knowing key people is sometimes more important to innovation than knowing scientific principles. Know-where and know-when are becoming increasingly important in a flexible and dynamic economy. Know-how refers to skills, the ability to do things on a practical level.The implication of the knowledge economy is that there is no alternative way to prosperity than to make learning and knowledge-creation of prime importance. There are different kinds of knowledge. “Tacit knowledge” is knowledge gained from experience, rather than that instilled by formal education and training. In the knowledge economy tacit knowledge is as important as formal, codified, structured and explicit knowledge.
A country’s capacity to take advantage of the knowledge economy depends on how quickly it can become a “learning economy’. Learning means not only using new technologies to access global knowledge, it also means using them to communicate with other people about innovation. In the “learning economy” individuals, firms, and countries will be able to create wealth in proportion to their capacity to learn and share innovation.
At the level of the organisation learning must be continuous. Organisational learning is the process by which organisations acquire tacit knowledge and experience. Such knowledge is unlikely to be available in codified form, so it cannot be acquired by formal education and training. Instead it requires a continuous cycle of discovery, dissemination, and the emergence of shared understandings. Successful firms are giving priority to the need to build a “learning capacity” within the organisation.
2.3.1 Data, Information and Knowledge
Before we understand what knowledge means, let us understand the knowledge hierarchy. In common parlance, it is often referred to as DIKW hierarchy. The four levels that we deal with are data, information, knowledge, and wisdom.
Data may be regarded as a commodity, value is added to data when they are processed into information and in turn information gains further value when it is applied in new contexts becoming transformed into enterprise specific knowledge. Knowledge is also defined as information to which experience, context, interpretation and reflection are added by individuals so that it becomes a high value form of information. In these circumstances knowledge can be utilized in novel ways - making predictions, for example – thereafter being retained within the organization as organizational knowledge. Contextualized knowledge is regarded as the outcome, or product, of a learning process, because it becomes owned as organizational, such knowledge is sticky in the sense that it is both localized and contextualized. And thus it is argued that organizational knowledge is socially constructed because its added value derives from an intra-organizational social process – the process of sharing. Information gains further value when it is used in new contexts and is transformed into enterprise specific knowledge in the process.
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Figure 1.1 The Continuum of Understanding
One gains knowledge through context (experiences) and understanding.
When one has context, one can weave the various relationships of the experiences.
The greater the context, the greater the variety of experiences that one is able to pull from.
The greater one understands the subject matter, the more one is able to weave past experiences (context) into new knowledge by absorbing, doing, interacting, and reflecting.
Thus, understanding is a continuum:
Data comes about through research, creation, gathering, and discovery.
Information has context. Data is turned into information by organizing it so that we can easily draw conclusions. Data is also turned into information by “presenting” it, such as making it visual or auditory.
Knowledge has the complexity of experience, which come about by seeing it from different perspectives. This is why training and education is difficult - one cannot count on one person’s knowledge transferring to another. Knowledge is built from scratch by the learner through experience. Information is static, but knowledge is dynamic as it lives within us.
Wisdom is the ultimate level of understanding. As with knowledge, wisdom operates within us. We can share our experiences that create the building blocks for wisdom, however, it need to be communicated with even more understanding of the personal contexts of our audience than with knowledge sharing.
Often, the distinctions between data, information, knowledge, and wisdom continuum are not very discrete, thus the distinctions between each term often seem more like shades of gray, rather than black and white.
Data and information deal with the past. They are based on the gathering of facts and adding context. Knowledge deals with the present. It becomes a part of us and enables to
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perform. However, when we gain wisdom, we start dealing with the future as we are now able to vision and design for what will be, rather than for what is or was.KM Viewpoint 1.1 An Example
This example uses a bank savings account to show how data, information, knowledge, and wisdom relate to principal, interest rate, and interest.
Data: The numbers 100 or 5%, completely out of context, are just pieces of data. Interest, principal, and interest rate, out of context, are not much more than data as each has multiple meanings which are context dependent.
Information: If I establish a bank savings account as the basis for context, then interest, principal, and interest rate become meaningful in that context with specific interpretations.
• Principal is the amount of money, Rs.100, in the savings account.
• Interest rate, 5%, is the factor used by the bank to compute interest on the principal.
Knowledge: If I put Rs.100 in my savings account, and the bank pays 5%
interest yearly, then at the end of one year the bank will compute the interest of Rs.5 and add it to my principal and I will have Rs.105 in the bank. This pattern represents knowledge, which, when I understand it, allows me to understand how the pattern will evolve over time and the results it will produce. In understanding the pattern, I know, and what I know is knowledge. If I deposit more money in my account, I will earn more interest, while if I withdraw money from my account, I will earn less interest.
Wisdom: Getting wisdom out of this is a bit tricky, and is, in fact, founded in systems principles. The principle is that any action which produces a result which encourages more of the same action produces an emergent characteristic called growth. And, nothing grows forever for sooner or later growth runs into limits.
If one studied all the individual components of this pattern, which represents knowledge, they would never discover the emergent characteristic of growth. Only when the pattern connects, interacts, and evolves over time, does the principle exhibit the characteristic of growth.
Now, if this knowledge is valid, why doesn't everyone simply become rich by putting money in a savings account and letting it grow? The answer has to do with the fact that the pattern described above is only a small part of a more elaborate pattern which operates over time. People don't get rich because they either don't put money in a savings account in the first place, or when they do, in time, they find things they need or want more than being rich, so they withdraw money. Withdrawing money depletes the principal and subsequently the interest they earn on that principal. Getting into this any deeper is more of a systems thinking exercise than is appropriate to pursue here.
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2.3.2 Defining knowledge
Knowledge is the process of translating information (such as data) and past experience into a meaningful set of relationships which are understood and applied by an individual.
Knowledge is the perception of the agreement or disagreement of two ideas - John Locke
Locke gave us the first hint of what knowledge is all about. Since that time, others have tried to refine it. Davenport and Prusak define knowledge as, “a fluid mix of framed experience, contextual information, values and expert insight that provides a framework for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and information.”
Notice that there are two parts to this definition:
• First, there is content: “a fluid mix of framed experience, contextual information, values and expert insight.” This includes a number of things that we have within us, such as experiences, beliefs, values, how we feel, motivation, and information.
• The second part defines the function or purpose of knowledge, “that provides a framework for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and information.”
Notice how this relates back to Locke’s definition — we have within us a framework (one idea) that we use for evaluating new experiences (the second idea).
“Knowledge is information that changes something or somebody — either by becoming grounds for actions, or by making an individual (or an institution) capable of different or more effective action.” - Peter F. Drucker