Action Meaning
Toes pointed outward Confi dence Toes pointed inward Submission A jutting chin Belligerence Lip and nail biting Disappointment
Lip licking Nervousness
Foot tapping Impatience
Leaning backward A relaxed attitude Leaning forward Interest
Open palms Honesty
Rubbing hands together Excitement
Body language may be an indicator of the anxiety that the communicator and the listener are experi- encing. According to Gay Turback in The Rotarian (April, 1995), “Without uttering a syllable, it’s pos- sible to communicate love, hate, fear, rage, deceit, and virtually every other emotion in the human repertoire.” The article goes on to describe how body signals have been around for more than a mil- lion years, with some researchers having catalogued 5,000 hand gestures and 1,000 postures, each with its own message. Says Turback, “Although some body language is nearly universal, much of it is an accouterment of one culture or another.” Certain actions may have one meaning in Mexico, a differ- ent meaning in the United States, and no relevance in Canada. Other examples given in the article that are especially common among North Americans are shown above.
body odor, fear of Fear of body odors is known as osphreisiophobia or bromidrosiphobia. Some 102 blushing, fear of
individuals fear their own body odor and have an unfounded fear that others will notice it. Such indi- viduals may avoid going into crowded places where they must be close to others, may use deodor- ants and antiperspirants excessively, may bathe, shower, or change clothes excessively, and may seek constant reassurance from family members that they cannot detect any odor. Fear of one’s own body odor is considered a SOCIAL PHOBIA and usu- ally responds to appropriate treatment.
See also DYSMORPHOPHOBIA; ODORS, FEAROFCER- TAIN; SOCIALPHOBIAS.
body therapies A group of therapies that empha- size the role of physical factors in anxieties and phobias and the resolution of those anxieties and phobias by relaxation, breathing, body manipula- tion, massage, and changes in posture and position of body parts. Body therapies are used in holistic therapies, which recognize relationships between mind and body in helping individuals overcome anxieties and phobias.
Body therapies encompass ancient Eastern tra- ditions of spirituality and cosmology along with contemporary Western neuromuscular and myo- fascial systems of skeletostructural and neuroskel- etal reorganization. They postulate that the body holds memory of trauma and that therapy must address body sensations. In fact, all proven theories for trauma focus extensively on body sensations.
Ancient disciplines in the category of body thera- pies include YOGA, TAICHICHUAN, Zen, Taoism, and Tantra. In the 20th century, Wilhelm Reich observed that clinical patients with emotional disturbances all demonstrated severe postural distortions. This observation helped to uncover more connections between the body-psyche and led to the develop- ment of the Reichian school of body therapy.
Another modern pioneer in the field was Moshe Feldenkrais, who postulated that the human organ- ism began its process of growth and learning with one built-in response, the “fear of falling.” All other physical and emotional responses were learned as the human organism grew and explored. To attain the full potential of the body-mind-emotions-spirit, there must be, according to Feldenkrais, “reeduca- tion of the kinesthetic sense and resetting of it to
the normal course of self-adjusting improvement of all muscular activity.” This would “directly improve breathing, digestion, and the sympathetic and para- sympathetic balance, as well as the sexual function, all linked together with the emotional experience.” Feldenkrais believed that reeducation of the body and its functions was the essence of creating unity of the being. His method has helped many people with problems of BACKPAIN, whiplash, and lack of coordination. The method is also used to help peo- ple who have TEMPOROMANDIBULARJOINTSYNDROME (TMJ), which is a collection of symptoms, includ- ing pain, that affect the jaw, face, and head, often brought about by anxieties, stress, and tension.
Four Systems of Body Therapies
Although many systems overlap and encom- pass aspects of the others, body therapies can be divided into four general categories, based on their methods.
Physical manipulation systems include the
connective tissue work of the Ida Rolf school (Rolf- ing) and the deep tissues release systems such as myofascial release used by John Barnes, an Ameri- can physical therapist.
Energy balancing systems include Chinese
ACUPUNCTURE and ACUPRESSURE, polarity, and Jin
Shin Jystu.
Emotional release systems include bioenerget- ics, primal therapy, and rebirthing.
Movement awareness systems include those of
Aston, Feldenkrais, Trager, and Aguado.
See also AYURVEDA; COMPLEMENTARY THERAPIES; MASSAGETHERAPY; MIND/BODYCONNECTIONS; YOGA.
Feldenkrais, Moshe, Explorers of Humankind (San Fran- cisco: Harper & Row, 1979).
———, Awareness Through Movement (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1972).
Feltman, John, ed., Hands-On Healing (Emmaus, Penn.: Rodale Press, 1989).
bogeyman, bogyman, bogey, and bogy An imag- inary character possibly possessing supernatural powers. The word has been used to refer to an apparition, hobgoblin, ghost, or the devil. Children fear the bogeyman because they are told that this bogeyman, bogyman, bogey, and bogy 103
spirit will punish them for misbehaving. The word bogy may have derived from a southern American form of bug, object of terror, or bugbear; it appears often in 19th- and 20th-century literature, as early as 1825.
The words boglie, meaning haunted, and bogle- some, meaning shy or skittish, have been developed from the original term.
In psychoanalytic terms, the bogeyman is inter- preted as externalized presuperego; that is, a pro- jection onto persons in the external world of the internalized parental prohibitions that are the fore- runners of the superego.
See also ANXIETYDISORDERSOFCHILDREN; PSYCHO- ANALYSIS.
Campbell, Robert, Psychiatric Dictionary (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981).
Oxford English Dictionary (London: Clarendon Press,
1961).
Random House Dictionary of the English Language (New York:
Random House, 1987).
Sarafino, Edward P., The Fears of Childhood (New York: Human Sciences Press, 1986).
Spears, Richard A., Slang and Euphemism (Middle Village, NY: David, 1981).
Wright, John, ed., English Dialect Dictionary (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970; reprint of 1905 edition).
bogyphobia Fear of bogies, or the bogeyman. Bogy- phobia can also refer to a generalized fear of demons, goblins, or spirits. It has no relation to boogyphobia, which is a fear of “getting down and rocking.”
See also BOGEYMAN; DEMONS; GOBLINS; SPIRITS; WITCHES.
books, fear of Fear of books is known as bibliopho- bia. Fear of the power of books is often expressed in terms less personal than those used for other fears. For example, government and religious officials rarely feel that reading a book is damaging to them personally but rather believe that society must be shielded from dangerous or obscene material.
Obsessive-compulsives will sometimes fear par- ticular words or numbers or fear reading about par- ticular behavior, thoughts, or emotions.
With the advent of printing and the spread of literacy, books fell into hands other than those of scholars and religious leaders. As a result, both gov- ernment and church took various measures to con- trol reading of what were considered heretical or treasonous ideas. The 18th century saw a relaxation of control and a guarantee of freedom of expression in the American Bill of Rights. In the 20th century, however, the burning of “unpatriotic” books was one of the most dramatic indications of the repres- sive influence of the Nazi regime in Germany. Con- centration on obscenity and the efforts of various pressure groups to control publication and distribu- tion of books have characterized recent history in the United States.
Too much or too little association with books also produces a certain type of stigma. Adult illiter- ates fear situations that will reveal that they cannot hold down a job or perform other daily tasks. On the other hand, to be considered bookish or a book- worm is not particularly complimentary.
See also BOOKSASANXIETYRELIEF.
Haight, Anne Lyon, Banned Books, 387 B.C. to 1978 A.D (New York: R. R. Bowker, 1978) pp. i–xxv.
Sills, D. E., ed., International Encyclopedia of the Social Sci-
ences (New York: Macmillan, 1968) “censorship.”
books as anxiety relief Bibliotherapy is an inter- disciplinary field that combines the skills of psycho- therapists, librarians, and educators. In the course of a bibliotherapy program, books are selected to promote normal development and to change dis- turbed patterns of behavior. The books may be directly concerned with mental health or may be fiction or nonfiction works relating to and inter- preting the readers’ problems and concerns. It has been suggested that reading about a disturbing subject such as DEATH, divorce, or AGING gives the reader a sense of control over his problems, a way of working them out in his mind. Use of selected books with children may alleviate fears by clearing up misconceptions and giving information about the UNKNOWN. Reading may also give the child the comforting knowledge that others share his fears and may promote communication with his or her parents.
Rubin, Rhea Joyce, Bibliotherapy Sourcebook (Phoenix: Oryx Press, 1978).
Sarafino, Edward P., The Fears of Childhood (New York: Human Sciences Press, 1986).
borborygami, fear of Rumbling, gurgling, etc. in the stomach or intestines, produced by gas in the alimentary canal, and audible at a distance. Some individuals so fear that others will hear these sounds that they become social phobics and avoid situa- tions where other people may hear these sounds.
See also PHOBIA; SOCIALPHOBIA.
borderline personality disorder A personal- ity disorder characterized by anxiety and unstable moods, behaviors, self-image, and interpersonal relationships. Moods may shift from normal to depressed, and the individual may show inappropri- ate intense anger or lack of control of anger. There may be impulsive moods, particularly with regard to activities that are potentially self-damaging, such as shopping sprees, psychoactive-substance abuse, reckless driving, casual sex, shoplifting, and binge eating. There may be an identity disturbance noticeable because of uncertainty about self-image, gender identity, or long-term goals or values. The individual may be chronically bored. During peri- ods of extreme stress there may be symptoms of depersonalization. This disorder is more common in females than in males.
See also ANXIETY; DEPERSONALIZATION; PERSONAL- ITYDISORDERS.
boredom, fear of Boredom is characterized by slow reactions, lack of productivity, wandering attention, and lessened emotional response. In extreme form, boredom may produce depression and hallucination. Boredom is a uniquely indi- vidual psychological condition in that what may be fascinating or soothing to one person may be boring or even anxiety-arousing to another. Bore- dom has been held responsible for ANXIETIES that lead to vandalism, violence, educational and voca- tional dropping out, marital unhappiness, and even SUICIDE.
Participants in an experiment using an artificial sensory-deprivation environment dropped out in spite of the fact that they were being paid well for doing nothing. Boredom is actually a type of pun- ishment. Solitary confinement for prisoners is a dreaded condition.
Boredom, or lack of stimulation, can be a trig- gering stimulus for anxiety, particularly with ago- raphobics. For example, many agoraphobics fear being alone, which is a state of too little social stimulation. Likewise, quietness, open spaces, and empty rooms are common anxiety triggers charac- terized by lack of stimulation.
An essential fact of boredom is that it is almost always the creation of the person who is bored. Things are only boring if someone judges them as boring. While some people seem bored with every- thing, others are bored with nothing. For some people, boredom is a self-imposed prison that keeps them from trying new things or having new, life- enriching experiences. Boredom often occurs with individuals who thrive on excessive stimulation and is not a function of environmental or social causes but of reduction in stimulation.
Some people view things as boring because they really are afraid of failure. In his book, A New Guide to Rational Living, Dr. Albert Ellis says: “Viewing fail- ure with fear and horror, some people avoid activi- ties that they would really like to engage in.” The rationale of such people is: if life is boring, nothing is worth doing. Thus if nothing is worth doing, a person can hardly fail.
Overcoming Boredom
Overcoming boredom depends on whether people are bored because they cannot live without excite- ment or whether they are bored because they have chosen to remain in a shell of inaction. Life is not supposed to be thrilling all the time. If you crave continuous thrills, reduce your expectations for excitement. If you are encased by the stresses of boredom, try to face reality. Get out and do one new thing each day, such as talk to some new peo- ple, become a volunteer, or write letters. Carried to the extreme, boredom and lack of stimulation can lead to depression and anxiety.
See also DEPRESSION; GENERAL ADAPTATION SYN- DROME; HOBBIES.
botonophobia Fear of plants. See also PLANTS, FEAROF.
bound, afraid of being Fear of being bound is known as merinthophobia. This fear is related to a fear of being out of control and a fear of being closed in without escape.
See also ENCLOSEDSPACES, FEAROF; TIEDUP, FEAR OFBEING.
bradycardia Extremely slow heart rate; the opposite of tachycardia (rapid heart rate). In many blood-injury phobics, bradycardia occurs as a sec- ondary reaction, following an initial phase of rapid heartbeat. Bradycardia can lead to fainting.
brain disease, fear of Fear of brain disease is known as meningitophobia.
brain imaging techniques Brain imaging tech- niques, like biological imaging techniques in gen- eral (such as X rays), allow a physician or researcher to look inside the body without surgically open- ing it. Techniques include regional cerebral blood flow (RCBF) imaging, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) imaging, positron emission tomography (PET), computerized tomography (CT), single pho- ton emission computed tomography (SPECT), and computerized topographic EEG (electroencephalo- graph) mapping.
Unlike the other imaging techniques, PET can measure body chemistry rather than simply anat- omy. Because it measures tracer concentrations up to a million times better than other techniques, it allows the study of microscopic, virtually invisible processes—such as the passage of nutrients through a membrane—as they take place. Thus PET can measure the distribution of psychoactive drugs, such as ANTIDEPRESSANTS, in the brain as well as the sites of trauma from head injuries, brain cancers, strokes, and epileptic seizures.
See also BIOLOGICALBASISFORANXIETY; DIAGNOS- TICCRITERIA.
brainwashing The process of inducing an indi- vidual to depart radically from his former behav- ior patterns, standards, and beliefs, and to adopt those imposed on him by others. It is not a tech- nique used to treat phobias, although the inten- tions of the process are to change the individual’s attitude and behaviors. The term has been used since the middle of the 20th century. Brainwash- ing is a technique feared by servicemen and spies. Although nothing is done directly to the brains of the individuals, much is done to their bodies, including starvation, beating, torture, isolation, prevention of sleep, endless interrogation, and often rewards for acting or speaking along lines indicated by the captors. Brainwashing is not a scientific application of any special psychological techniques and can be successfully done by vir- tually primitive people who have never heard of psychology. It is basically a physical-abuse tech- nique in which a victim is deprived of health and vigor by the captors. The induction of fears and anxieties is a key element in the brainwashing process.
breakdown, nervous See NERVOUSBREAKDOWN.
breast cancer A malignant tumor in the breast tissue or area. Most sufferers are female, but some men contract breast cancer. A diagnosis of breast cancer brings extreme anxiety, including the fear of death and, for women, fear of the loss of a breast and the potential loss of perceived physical attrac- tiveness and sexuality.
Breast cancer is the most common newly diagnosed cancer in women. According to the National Cancer Institute, an estimated 211,240 women develop new cases of breast cancer in each year, as do about 1,700 men. The most com- mon type of breast cancer is ductal carcinoma, in which abnormal cells are located within the lining of the ducts. Lobular carcinoma is another type of breast cancer.
Most studies show that white women have the greatest risk for a breast cancer diagnosis. However, African-American women have a worse prognosis and higher mortality rate with breast cancer than 106 botonophobia
women of other races, which may be related to the higher grade (more advanced) tumors that they are more likely to develop, as well as a diagnosis in a later stage of the disease.
When cancer is detected while the tumor is still localized in the breast, the disease can be treated, and many women will lead normal life spans after receiving treatment. However, if the tumor has metastasized (spread) to other parts of the body, such as the bones, lungs, liver, or brain, this type of cancer is more difficult to treat and is usually not curable.
The anxiety, fear, and apprehension that each woman faces when she or her physician discov- ers a lump in her breast are, if proven to be breast cancer, the beginning of a long, stressful period in her life. In addition, the diagnosis of breast cancer affects her family, as they fear her possible death as well as physical harm and illness. Marriages or relationships can be put under a terrific strain and often they do not last. For these women, the stress of maintaining a positive sense of BODY IMAGE and self-worth follows them throughout their lives.
Women diagnosed with breast cancer face dif- ficult decisions, such as which treatment to have and whether to have a breast reconstruction or to have the entire breast removed. The physician will offer advice, but the decision is ultimately up to the woman.
Once a lump has been discovered, whether through self-examination, physician examina- tion, or mammography, a woman enters a world of baffling terminology in which she must depend on medical professionals. She must deal with the anxieties of tests and procedures that are used to identify a breast symptom and also cope with the time lapse before a final diagnosis is made. If a malignancy is found, she must select from a variety of treatment options and find the right resources to assure that the best decision is made. The more information that she has, the easier it may be for a woman to determine the advantages and disadvan- tages of various therapies.
When treatment is completed, the woman who has had breast cancer is faced with the fear and continuing anxiety that she could experience a recurrence of the disease.
Symptoms and Diagnostic Path
Only a physician can accurately diagnose the pres- ence of breast cancer. However, some common