Chapter 3 Fatigue delamination of composite laminates
3.3. Effect of R on fatigue delamination
In Northern Scots, ‘the more peripheral a Northern dialect is, the more environments a separate BAIT reflex appears in’ (Johnston 1997: 464).
MATE-HAME
Shetland Generally merger with BAIT and BEAT clathes ‘clothes’
Whalsay: some palatalisation after velars: /je/ in cake Orkney Generally merger with BAIT and BEAT
clathes ‘clothes’
Stronsay do; floor Figure 2.21 MATE-HAME in Insular Scots
Generally a merger between MATE-HAME and BAIT takes place in the ‘centre’ of Mid-Northern A, except where a diphthong develops in words such as rain and tail; this is at least similar to the vowel found in these contexts (and also with MATE-HAME and BAIT) before /r/, as in pair, /pejər/.
Elsewhere in Mid-Northern, BAIT is distinct from MATE-HAME, generally as a vowel (whether monophthongal or diphthongal) some-what lower than /e/, except when the BAIT vowel is followed by /s/, where merger with MATE-HAME takes place. Thus the vowel in lay may well be pronounced differently from that in lace.
As with most Scots dialects, there is a sub-set of BAIT where a diph-thong is always present. Unlike many dialects of Scots, however, the equivalent of English way is pronounced not like BITE, but rather TRY, so that whit wey, ‘why, for what reason’, pronounced /t wəi/ in Central Scots, is /ft wae/ (with a back [ɑ] first nucleus in the diphthong) in Mid-Northern.
Angus is very similar to Moray, with a distinction normally between MATE-HAME and BAIT. Unlike the periphery of Mid-Northern, large parts of Kincardineshire and northern Angus do not have diph-thongal pronunciations for rain and tail, however. Like Mid-Northern, pay and change are realised with /ae/ and /i/ respectively. Way, on the other hand, is pronounced as TRY well into northern Angus, but with BITE to the south (the Mid-Scots realisation).
Some – particularly younger – speakers of North Northern, along with the fisher folk of Thurso, merge BAIT with MATE-HAME and BEAT. Those living furthest from the centres of population, particularly if they are older, generally maintain a distinction between all three (Johnston 1997: 464). Pay is generally not distinguished from BEAT, although way may have a diphthong similar to that found in Mid-Northern.
BAIT
MNA Merged with MATE-HAME and DRESS MNB Generally merger with MATE-HAME, DRESS NNA Generally merger with MATE-HAME, BEAT
NNB Merger with MATE-HAME and BEAT by some speakers SN Kincardineshire: generally merger with MATE-HAME,
BAIT Angus: BAIT distinguished from MATE-HAME Figure 2.22 BAIT in Northern Scots
2.2.3.5.2 Insular Scots
In Insular Scots, BAIT is generally either nearly or fully merged with BET (although the vowel in BAIT may be longer and have an off-glide).
Phonetically, this vowel can vary from a fairly high monophthong on the west of the mainland of Shetland, [e], to diphthongs of a variety of different heights on the periphery of that archipelago, to a low front monophthong in parts of Orkney (before voiceless stops), so that bait is [b t].
In Orcadian and the dialects of northern Shetland MATE-HAME and BAIT generally merge in all environments. The same is true throughout both archipelagos before /r/, /s/ and velars, with the BAIT vowel normally standing for both, so that taste may sound like test to non-locals. Regularly, rain, and, rather less regularly, tail, take a glide vowel before the final consonant. Pay and way have [ε] throughout the dialect area (ibid.: 464). Outsiders at least may hear this vowel as a variant of BITE.
2.2.3.6 DRESS
As Johnson (1997: 470) points out, the Scottish realisation of /ε/ ‘may be slightly more peripheral or higher than a typical English or American BET form’. When speaking SSE, Scottish speakers generally have the same distribution patterns as any other variety of Standard English.
When speaking Scots, however, in anything other than the ‘thinnest’ pos-sible variety, a number of words associated with other sets may have this vowel. Examples of this include the Scots equivalents to grass and after, regularly /DZrεs/ and /εftər/, although the former is often girse /DZrs/ in our dialects. On the other hand, a number of words associated with DRESS in the Standard, such as dead, head, red, well (adverb) and deaf, are associated with the BEAT group (see above). Because DRESS vowels behave differently before /r/ in some of our dialects, I have distin-guished a sub-set PERCH.
BAIT
Shetland Generally merger with MATE-HAME and BEAT Many DRESS words are also associated with this merger
Orkney Generally merger with MATE-HAME and BEAT Many DRESS words are also associated with this merger
Figure 2.23 BAIT in Insular Scots
2.2.3.6.1 Northern Scots
In Mid-Northern A, the DRESS vowel is generally raised and merged with MATE-HAME and BAIT at /e/, pronounced somewhat lower in the mouth than it is in central Scotland. I hear glaikit, ‘simple, gormless’, for instance, as if it had /ε/, in contrast with my own higher Central Scots pronunciation. To natives of the North-East, however, words of this type are associated with the merged /e/ vowel. In Mid-Northern B, North Northern and South Northern, this merger generally did not take place, and an /ε/ pronunciation is more normal for DRESS. This vowel is often raised somewhat and may even be diphthongised. This diph-thongisation is often seen as typical of Moray speech, but is found as far south as Angus (Johnston 1997: 472). Monophthongal pronunciations are the norm in North Northern, however.
In Northern Scots, a preceding <wr> (generally /vr/ ), in words like wretch (local vratch), /w/, as in well, ‘place where water is drawn’ (local wall), and web (local wab), or a preceding palatal consonant and /l/
DRESS
MNA Merged with MATE-HAME and BAIT
MNB Distribution mainly as with SSE
NNA Distribution mainly as with SSE
NNB Distribution mainly as with SSE
SN Distribution mainly as with SSE
Southern Angus and Dundee: bag PERCH
MNA Often start, starve, farm, heart, arse MNB Often start, starve, farm, heart, arse NNA Often start, starve, farm, heart, arse mare ‘more’, mare ‘female horse’
Sporadic merger with SKIRT and NURSE
NNB Often merger with SKIRT and NURSE
Often start, starve, farm, heart, arse mare ‘more’, mare ‘female horse’
SN Often start, starve, farm, heart, arse
Southern Angus and Dundee: bairn ‘child’
Figure 2.24 DRESS in Northern Scots
following, as in shell or yellow, normally leads to the vowel being trans-ferred to TRAP, so that yellow is /jalə/ and shell /ʃal/. Web may, in some communities, become associated with LOT (ibid.: 472), as /wɔb/. In coastal communities, diphthongisation may lead to web becoming asso-ciated with LOWP, as /wəub/. This last change forms part of dog-diphthongisation, and will be dealt with in the discussion of LOT.
2.2.3.6.2 Insular Scots
In Insular Scots, as well as the general Scots exceptions detailed above, a number of further special developments are present for the equivalent to Standard DRESS. Particularly in Shetland, vowel lengthening is pos-sible before /k/ (ibid.: 471), so that peck may well be [pek] or [pεk]. This vowel is often pronounced in these dialects in a similar (if not identical) way to the reflexes of BEAT and MATE-HAME and BAIT. Before voiced sounds [ε] can rise almost, or completely, to [e]. Although found throughout both archipelagos, this development is, again, particularly strong in Shetland. In central and southern Shetland, an up-gliding diphthong pronounced [ε] or [e] may be heard in words like beg. In the outer isles, such as Whalsay, a more centralised diphthong, [i], is found, sounding, at least to outsiders, almost identical to BITE.
As in SSE, egg is generally pronounced with DRESS in Shetland. The word is pronounced with /i/ in the conservative Fair Isle dialect (ibid.:
471), thereby transferring to MEET. This pronunciation was probably more common in the past.
Orcadian is more like Northern Scots than is Shetlandic. This can be seen in particular with the development of/ε/ following /w/, in words such as web or well, which merge with TRAP. Like Shetland, however, but in a much more circumscribed way, /ε/ can be raised, on this occasion before /l/ to [e] in the Kirkwall area (so that bell, bail, and bale may
DRESS
Shetland Some merger with BAIT, MATE-HAME, BEAT
Orkney Some merger with BAIT, MATE-HAME, BEAT
PERCH
Shetland Often start, starve, farm, heart, arse war, far, warn
Orkney Often start, starve, farm, heart, arse war, far, warn
Figure 2.25 DRESS in Insular Scots
become homophones) or [] in North Ronaldsay. This phenomenon is not found elsewhere in the islands, however.
2.2.3.7 TRAP
Because of the presence in all the varieties under discussion of pre-consonantal and word-final /r/ and the lack of a phonemically qualitative distinction (as found in RP) between the vowels in trap and bath, Wells’
TRAP, BATH, PALM and START lexical sets are one set in most forms of SSE and in all Scots varieties. Phonemically, the vowel in question is /a/, although there can be considerable variation from place to place over pro-nunciation, in frontness or backness, or vowel height (Johnston 1997: 484).
A number of words which belong to this set in SSE are associated with other sets in most of the Scots dialects. Words such as arm, often part, airt,
‘place’, and bairn, ‘child’, are associated with MATE-HAME; other words, such as start, starve, farm and arse are often pronounced as DRESS; in Insular varieties, words such as war, far and warn also merge with DRESS.
In many Scots dialects, hand-darkening (ibid.: 484) takes place. Words with /r/, /rC/ (where C stands for any consonant), /l/ and /nd/, such as tar, dark, pal and hand merge with THOUGHT, realised according to the phonemic pattern of the variety concerned.
2.2.3.7.1 Northern Scots
TRAP
MNA Wash, water, long, strong, top, off, loft Some merger or overlap with CAUGHT Some palatalisation before or after velars:
/ja/ in bake, cake
MNB Wash, water, long, strong, top, off, loft Some merger or overlap with CAUGHT Some palatalisation before or after velars:
/ja/ in bake, cake
NNA Wash, water, top, off, loft
Long and strong are not members of TRAP for all speakers
Some merger or overlap with CAUGHT NNB Wash, water, long, strong, top, off, loft
Some merger or overlap with CAUGHT
SN Wash, water, long, strong, top, off, loft
Some merger or overlap with CAUGHT Figure 2.26 TRAP in Northern Scots
A number of words belonging to other sets in SSE are found with TRAP in most Scots dialects. These are often preceded by /w/, such as wash and want, or followed by /n/, such as long, /laŋ/, or strong, /straŋ/ (or in Scots thrang, ‘crowded, extremely busy’) (Johnston 1997: 484). Top, off, loft and croft as well as the diminutives Rab (Robert) and Tam (Thomas) also merge with TRAP. Some speakers would include the first syllable in Forfar in this set, as /farfər/.
Many Northern Scots varieties show a merger, or at least overlap, with THOUGHT, so that caught may be a homophone of cat, both being pro-nounced /kat/. This merger is confined to fewer and fewer environ-ments the farther away from the Mid-Northern A area you go (ibid.:
485). Even within Mid-Northern A, the merger is more complete in the urban varieties of Aberdeen than in the rural varieties. With the excep-tion of the north coast of Caithness, most varieties have at least overlap between the two classes before voiceless fricatives and many velars, so that tack and talk, may sound very similar, and might actually be homo-phones for native speakers: /tak/. This merger may still be spreading in North Northern, since it is associated primarily with the Thurso and Wick dialects, and with the speech of the fishing community, which, as we have seen, appears to be innovative in this area.
The place of articulation for TRAP ranges from front to central real-isations in Caithness dialects [a˜ ] to much more back realisations in Mid-Northern of the [ɑ] type, a stereotypical feature of Northern speech to outsiders. This back variant is also present in Caithness after labials and before /l/, /n/ and /r/, so that the vowel in bag and band are pronounced with different allophones which, to outsiders, seem phonemes. [ɑ], particularly in its long variants, is also found before /l/, /n/, /x/ and /nd/ (except, again, on the north coast), as well as after labials in North Northern A. In these latter communities, the long words may be included with LOT (perhaps under the influence of SSE), so that lack and long will have different vowels.
In general, Mid-Northern speakers have back pronunciations for this set, with some variation in length and some fronting in fishing commu-nities. In Mid-Northern A at least, there is a tendency for certain words, such as bank, want and Grampian to have a vowel similar to [ ] rather than [ɑ]. Whereas most Scots speakers would pronounce a difference between English water, /wɔtər/, and Scots watter, /watər/, this may not be as distinctive for speakers of Mid-Northern, since both /ɔ/ and /a/ often fall together at / /: /w tər/.
In some parts of Angus, most notably the suburbs of Dundee north to Arbroath, a very distinctive /ε/ pronunciation is found in these contexts before /b/ and /DZ/, so that bag, for instance, belongs in the DRESS set.
In all Northern Scots varieties, words such as bairn and start have left this class and merged with the MATE-HAME class. This is with the exception of Angus, where a lower /εr/ pronunciation, similar to that in Mid-Scots, is present, merging with DRESS.
In Mid-Northern at least, a number of words, such as tyaave, ‘to strug-gle’, and myaave, ‘seagull’, are pronounced with the TRAP vowel, pre-ceded by /j/. In Mid-Scots, this set would be associated with a rounded CAUGHT pronunciation and not have the preceding semi-vowel or succeeding /v/.
2.2.3.7.3 Insular Scots
In general, Insular Scots varieties realise a fronted [a] for this set, which is often somewhat higher in the mouth than the cardinal vowel, approach-ing / /. Many of the words associated with TRAP in Northern Scots are also included in this set in Insular Scots. Before /p/ and /k/ the vowel is always lengthened in Fair Isle and on the northern and southern periph-ery of the Orkneys, so that cap is [kap] and back is [bak]. This implies, in these locations, a merger with CAUGHT, or even, with the fronted allophones found on Fair Isle, DRESS. Lengthening is also a feature of many dialects (although more common on the periphery of the archi-pelagos) before /b/ and /d/, producing realisations such as [kεb] for cab and [bεd] in Fair Isle and elsewhere, again merging with DRESS. The extent of lengthening and raising is a marker of local identity, even within relatively circumscribed areas, as can be seen in the western Shetland recording transcribed in 7.1.6 (pp. 156–61).
This lengthening is extended to environments before /DZ/ in a number of places around the archipelagos, so that leg is [laDZ]. In North Ronaldsay, however, the vowel is backed to [ɔ] before /b/ and /d/, so that lad is [lɔd]. This causes overlap, if not merger, with LOT and GOAT.
A following /DZ/ produces the expected [ε]. Natives of Yell are noted for pronouncing tattie, ‘potato’, as tottie. Hand-darkening also occurs in these varieties, generally producing a vowel like [ɑ] in words like land – [lɑnd], thus merging with CAUGHT.
TRAP
Shetland Wash, water, long, strong, top, off, loft Some merger or overlap with CAUGHT Orkney Wash, water, long, strong, top, off, loft
Some merger or overlap with CAUGHT Figure 2.27 TRAP in Insular Scots
2.2.3.8 KIT
In SSE the vowel // is generally employed in the same places as it is in RP, with the proviso that it is also realised as /r/ with words such as bird in many accents, in distinction to the vowel in words such as herd and fur, with which it is merged in many varieties of English. Because of the variation in pronunciation with this set in these contexts, a sub-class, SKIRT, is also recognised. It is generally pronounced ‘a good deal lower’ in the mouth in most Scottish accents than it would be in RP (Johnston 1997: 468). This means that caricatures of Scottish speech often have a full merger between KIT and STRUT (Wells 1982: 2.2.5); this is not regularly the case for most speakers, however.
2.2.3.8.1 Northern Scots
KIT
MNA hit, grin, flit, ‘move house’, hill, pill
foot
speak, week, breeks ‘trousers’
MNB hit, grin, flit, hill, pill
foot
speak, week, breeks ‘trousers’
NNA hit, grin, flit, wind, hill, pill
foot
NNB hit, grin, flit, lid, bin, wind, hill, pill
foot
SN hit, grin, flit
foot
speak, week, breeks ‘trousers’
SKIRT
MNA Distribution mainly as with SSE
MNB Distribution mainly as with SSE
NNA Distribution mainly as with SSE
Nairn: merger with NURSE
NNB Merger with NURSE and PERCH
SN Distribution mainly as with SSE
Figure 2.28 KIT in Northern Scots
In Mid-Northern Scots, // is normal in these contexts. Words like king, however, can be pronounced with /i/, thus merging with MEET. Kick is not involved in this merger. Wind is generally merged with STRUT, although, unlike Central Scots, this does not happen with hill or pill.
Speak, week and breeks, ‘trousers’, are all pronounced with the KIT vowel by traditional dialect speakers.
In North Northern A (in particular the Black Isle), KIT merges with STRUT before /d/ and /n/, although this is not carried out systemati-cally. Thus lid and the first syllable in Luddite could be pronounced in the same way, as could bin and bun. In Nairn, // before /r/ is merged with NURSE, so that girl has the same vowel as fur, a sub-set of STRUT in most Scottish accents. This merger has not happened on the Black Isle.
Swim and king (on this occasion including kick) are pronounced /i/ and are merged with FLEECE. Night (pronounced /nxt/) is not involved in this merger. Hill, pill and wind are pronounced with [], however.
In Caithness the subsets swim and king are pronounced /i/, although native speakers report that the words which have /i/ or // can vary at a very local level indeed. Wick is /wik/ for traditional speakers. As we will also see for Insular Scots, a following /x/ causes a diphthong to be pro-nounced in place of the //, so that night can be /nəixt/ or /naext/.
There is merger between SKIRT and NURSE; in recent times, as Johnston (1997: 469) points out, this combination has also merged with PERCH words (pronounced with a distinct /εr/ in most other Scottish varieties), so that Caithness speech is, in this context, rather like many Irish and North American English varieties.
South Northern varieties do not generally have the fronted /i/ pro-nunciations for the swim and king sub-classes. They do, however, have the retraction of // to / / in words such as hill, pill and wind, characteristic of more central varieties. Again, this may represent in part the influence of Dundonian. These sub-classes are therefore transferred to STRUT.
On the other hand, as with Mid-Northern, speak, week and breeks,
‘trousers’, are all pronounced with //.
2.2.3.8.2 Insular Scots
Orcadian varieties generally have a more fronted realisation for // than is normal on the Scottish mainland, so that words like hid may be homonyms or near-homonyms of words like heed. Shetland varieties tend to be more retracted, however. This is particularly marked for the latter when // stands before labials and velars, so that, to outsiders at least, nib may sound like nub, rig like rug, and so on (although the normal Shetland pronunciation of STRUT means that there is little danger of confusion).
As with the mainland Northern varieties, Orcadian demonstrates a fronting of // in words like swim, king, and often kick, to /i/. In marked
As with the mainland Northern varieties, Orcadian demonstrates a fronting of // in words like swim, king, and often kick, to /i/. In marked