An overview of the relevant literature suggests that addressing environmental problems demands action from four main areas: research and documentation, developing a holistic organisational structure, legislation and its enforcement, and environmental education (Lawal, 1995). In this section, review of international, regional and national policy initiatives and legislation related to forest resource conservation is presented.
I begin with a brief account of the meaning of policy. According to Anderson (1997:311)
“…public policy is the means of defining in a rational and authoritative manner the distribution of goods and services according to benefits and costs in society…” Policy is a statement of intents or objectives that government sets out as part of its vision. The statement provides a framework that guides and determines the action of government, its agencies and other stakeholders who may be either affected by or interested in the policy. Therefore, forest policy defines the role of government – and all other stakeholders – concerning the exploitation and management of forest resources. The policy is concerned with the manner in which forest and tree resources should be managed to serve both the material and non-material needs of the people. Forest policy is a tool to guide the forestry sub-sector of any country (Prunty, 1994; Hill, 1997).
Since the late-1980s several international and regional environmental policy initiatives have been established. Never before in human history has the global community come together to search for sustainable solutions to the world’s environmental challenges. In 1987, the World Commission on Environment and Development began this global move with its Brundtland Report: Our Common Future. Five years later, the Earth Summit, organised by the United Nations, was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1992. Agenda 21, an Action Plan for Development and the Rio Declaration on Environmental Protection and Responsible Development was the international initiative that came out of the summit. All the countries that participated in the summit pledged and signed a statement of forest principles for more sustainable use of forest resources. Chapter 11 of Agenda 21 discussed action plans for: (i) sustaining the multiple roles and functions of all types of forests, forest lands and woodlands; (ii) enhancing the protection, sustainable management and
conservation of all forests, and the greening of degraded areas (through forest rehabilitation, afforestation, reforestation, and other rehabilitative means); and (iii) promoting efficient utilisation and assessment to recover the full valuation of the goods and services provided by forests, forest lands and woodlands. Agenda 21 promotes improved legislation, action plans, and research for halting deforestation (UNCED, 1992).
The Millennium Summit of 2000 reaffirmed commitment to sustainable development and the proposed Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were unanimously adopted – another international initiative for achieving human development. Among other issues, the Millennium Development Goals stressed the urgent need to reduce extreme poverty and hunger; to improve education and gender equality; to combat HIV/AIDS; to ensure environmental sustainability, and to strengthen the capacity of the global community to undertake development. Specifically related to forest resource conservation is MDG 7 – namely, to ensure environmental sustainability. It is estimated that every year over 14 million hectares of tropical forests are converted to unsustainable land uses with the accompanying loss of biodiversity, increases in greenhouse gas emissions, increases in soil erosion, and the disruption of watershed services (UNESCO, 2002; World Bank, 2002b).
Although only one out of the nine MDGs explicitly refers to the environment, there is no doubt that the attainment of other goals in this Millennium Summit’s declaration rests on the health of the environment. Governments all over the world, including those in sub-Saharan Africa, have willingly initiated projects toward achieving these targets.
Johannesburg, South Africa, 2002, was when government leaders, delegates, scholars and researchers gathered for the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) (otherwise called Rio+10). The summit served as a platform to review and assess the progress made by countries towards the attainment of those commitments/principles of UNCED, as pledged ten years earlier in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The focus of the WSSD, unlike UNCED, was much broader than the environmental aspects of sustainable development. WSSD covered poverty alleviation, consumption and production, health, globalisation, conserving and managing the natural resource base, the role of institutions, and the process required for implementing the plans of action adopted.
The summit produced a document entitled ‘Plan of Implementation of WSSD 2002’ (World Bank, 2002b; United Nations, 2002).
Another global convention that has shaped interaction with the environment in general, and forests in particular, has been the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (UNEP, 1992) whose provisions are especially relevant to forests in Africa. Although desertification and land degradation are major environmental problems in both developing and developed countries, when one considers the rate of desertification, the yearly loss of topsoil and the attendant loss of biodiversity in sub-Saharan African countries, it would not be out of place to assume that the CBD was initiated for the African nations. Governments of all countries are to accept primary responsibility for creating appropriate conditions for implementing the principle of sustainable development. These efforts will be based on the strategies, plans and programmes, all
formulated in cooperation with various social groups and non-governmental organisations. Nigeria and South Africa are signatories to most of these international conventions and initiatives.
Before reviewing the policy initiatives at the regional and national levels in the two countries of study, it is pertinent to examine briefly a concept that encapsulates all the initiatives or the ultimate goal: that of human sustainability through the sustainable use of environmental resources and development.
Sustainable development is a concept that has at its core numerous inter-related global concerns – such as poverty, inequality, hunger and environmental degradation. Since sustainable development came to prominence (through the Brundtland Commission report in 1987), the idea of has generated much interest and debate. The point at issue is the model of sustainability suited for future development. The term ‘sustainable development’, which also connotes ‘sustainability’, remains a catch phrase for all ideas for future development. Sustainability is itself a complex notion, determined by economic, ecological and socio-cultural factors. Although sustainable development has many definitions, the most widely quoted comes from Our Common Future:
“Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” (WCED, 1987:87)
Clearly, according to this definition, sustainable development is a concept that encompasses a wide range of economic, technological and political, as well as environmental, perspectives.
Technological perspectives promote the view that advances in technology and the operation of free market economic forces will be sufficient to remedy the effects of an environmental crisis. By contrast, environmental perspectives of sustainable development promote world-views towards more fundamental, transformative cultural changes. According to O’Riordan (1981:8), ecological perspectives promote “…a humble and humane approach of harmony with ecological processes and a sense of true association with the Earth, which in turn requires a fundamental change of attitude away from a sense of technological hubris…” Despite the disagreement over the acceptability and attainability of sustainable development, international organisations have continued to endorse the concept and have brought it into the broader development discourse.
Sustainable development is essentially concerned with the prosperity and quality of life. Smith and Williams (1999:1) asserted that “…sustainability is about the relationships between human beings and the world; it is about morality…” In this sense, sustainability is a concept that concurs with those views on environmental ethics that assume a moral stance towards the world. The concept recognises the limit in the carrying capacity of natural resources to sustain the world’s human population. Sustainable development should not be interpreted as a fixed notion, but should rather be seen as a process of change in the relationships between social, economic and natural systems and processes. Sustainability is the alternative to resource depletion caused by
“…excessive exploitation for short-term benefits…” (Clerk, 1992: 428). The IUCN advanced sustainability as a strategic approach towards: the integration of conservation and development consistent with objectives of ecosystem maintenance; the preservation of genetic diversity; and the sustainable utilisation of resources. The criterion for sustainable use is that the resources should not be harvested, extracted or utilised in excess of the level at which the resource can be regenerated.
Sustainable development is an integrated and innovation-oriented way of seeking solutions that have a “…triple bottom line…”, with outcomes that are good for people, the environment and the economy (WCED, 1987).
3.8.1 African Policy Responses to Environmental Crisis: Continental and Regional Considering the number of policies, initiatives, programmes, projects, conferences and workshops – both at continental, sub-regional, bilateral and national levels – countries in sub-Saharan Africa have responded energetically to environmental crisis in the continent. Many African countries have initiated and developed new national environmental policies, laws and regulations and several have entered into bilateral and multilateral environmental agreements. However, the degree of success has been uneven and there remains the question of why the original problems persist. It has been argued that most of these policies and projects, laudable as they may be, remain mere intentions, without the political will or capacity for their implementation.
Collective initiatives or actions taken by African governments to address the challenges of environmental degradation include:
The Algiers Convention on the conservation of nature and natural resources signed in 1968 by African governments;
The Organisation of African Unity (OAU) in 1980, during an extraordinary summit of African heads of state and governments, adopted the Lagos Plan of Action;
The establishment of the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) in 2001, by African heads of state.
3.8.2 Sub-Regional Policy Responses and Actions
Many of Africa’s policy responses to the environmental issues and challenges of the 1992 Earth Summit, MDGs (2000) and WSSD (2002) can also be found in the various sub-regional frameworks and agreements developed since 1992. These responses are based on sub-regional political and economic groupings and priorities.
In 1990 the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) was established with the main aim of formulating regional policy and strategy to ensure both efficient and sustainable use of natural resources and their effective management and conservation. SADC incorporates environmental considerations in all policies and programmes, and integrates the sustainable use of natural resources with development needs. Environmental policies in the sub-region include the SADC Wildlife Policy; the SADC Wildlife Protocol; the Forestry Sector Policy and Development Strategy; the Protocol on Shared Watercourse Systems; the Southern African Power Pool; and the Southern Africa Trade Protocol. Running parallel with these initiatives are other important sub-regional responses including: the SADC Environmental Information Systems Programme; the SADC Wetlands Conservation Programme; the SADC Environmental Education Programme; and the Southern Africa Biodiversity Support Programme (Dalal-Calyton, 1997; Kowero et al., 2003).
The countries in the West African sub-region were brought together under the aegis of a regional organisation entitled the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), formed in 1976. However, there has not been much cooperation between the countries, especially
on environmental issues. Most of the policy responses to environmental issues in western Africa have been made at the national level. Although regional frameworks for coordination and cooperation exist on paper, their implementation on the ground has been weak, because of lack of funding and institutional problems (Africa Environment Outlook, available online www.unep.org/aeo downloaded on 7-06-04).
In addition to these regional and sub-regional initiatives, there have also been country level efforts. In their efforts to address environmental degradation, African countries have focused on a range of policy responses. International policy and policy dialogues set the framework for national-level policies, and are therefore very important because their influence can be felt even at the local level.
3.8.3 Forest Policy and Related Policies in Nigeria
Nigeria has several policies and plans that affect the environment and forest resource conservation.
Several of these have been adopted and are being implemented; others are being drafted or under review. These documents include: the National Environment Policy of 1988 (revised in 1996), and the National Agricultural Policy (2003). Other policies include: the National Policy and Plan of Actions, 1991–1995; National Policy on Population and Sustainable Development (2003); the Water Supply and Sanitation Policy (adopted in 2004), and the National Policy on Women (2000) – the latter strives to enhance the status of women. Other sectoral policies relevant to forest resource conservation are: the National Energy Policy; the National Conservation Strategy; National Resources Conservation Action Plan; the National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP); the State Environmental Action Plan (SEAP); the National Tropical Forestry Action Plan; the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan; The Green Agenda of the Vision 2010 Report; the National Empowerment and Economic Development Strategy (NEEDS); and the National Action Programme to Combat Desertification (EC-FAO, 2003; Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2005).
3.8.4 Forest Policy and Related Policies in South Africa
Since 1994, there has been a conscious effort on the part of government to initiate, formulate and implement various reconstruction and development programmes for the country to reduce poverty, ignorance and inequality. Policies include: the National Environmental Management Act, No. 107 of 1998; the White Paper on Environmental Education and Training (Republic of South Africa, 1995); Environmental Implementation Plans and Environmental Management Plans (2002); the White Paper on Environmental Management Policy for South Africa (1998); Land Policy (1995);
White Paper on the Conservation and Sustainable use of South Africa’s Biological Diversity (1997); and the White Paper on Sustainable Forest Development in South Africa, (1997); National Forestry Action Plan (NFAP); and National Forests Acts of (Republic of South Africa, 1998).
These policies are not only geared towards sustainable management of natural resources, but also emphasise local community and private sector participation in managing and sharing accrued benefits from the resources. This is a radical shift from earlier policies that had restricted forest management to the government and its agencies.
In South Africa, the protection and conservation of the environment is a constitutional matter.
Chapter 2, section 24 of the country’s Constitution (Republic of South Africa, 1994) specifies, within the Bill of Rights, that every citizen has the right:
“…to an environment that is not harmful to their health or well-being, and to have the environment protected for the benefit of present and future generations, through reasonable legislature and other measures that:
prevents pollution and ecological degradation;
promotes conservation; and
secures ecologically sustainable development and use of natural resources while promoting justifiable economic and social development.”
The Constitution places the responsibility for the protection of forest resources at both national and provincial government levels. It is the responsibility of the central government, through the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, to formulate the general policy concerning the conservation and use of forest resources, the implementation of which will be undertaken by the different government institutions within central, provincial, and local spheres (DWAF, 1997; Twine, et al, 2003; Shackleton, 2004b).
Literature shows that, despite the formulation of forest and forestry policy and legislation by many of the African countries in the past decade (1990 to 2000), both the implementation and law enforcement remain weak in most countries. Africa’s natural endowments, especially the forest resources, are still under threat by human activities – bush burning, land fragmentation, and over-farming, grazing – which lead to uncontrollable soil erosion, deforestation and degradation of the ecology of the continent (particularly among rural inhabitants in their quest for survival) (World Watch Institute, 1991; Sharp & Koné, 1992; WRI, 1994; FAO, 2001c). The questions posed here are: To what extent are the goals and objectives of these policies related to (and relevant to) the concerns and needs of the people? What has been the level of involvement of local people in the formation and implementation of these policies? Providing answers to these and other questions will help illuminate the possible contradictions between policy goals and objectives and the impact on the people for whom the policy has been formed.
The content of the forest policies of Nigeria and South Africa will be analysed in Chapter Four, the first chapter on analysis in this thesis.