ORGANIZACIONES NO GRADUADAS ( incluir todos los planes )
2.12. EGRESADOS SEGÚN TÍTULO / CERTIFICACIÓN Y PLAN DE ESTUDIOS
This section considers IS implementation as a change management process and addresses problems of non-usage and resistance. Hellriegel and Slocum (1992) identify seven factors vital to effective implementation of an information system:
● user involvement,
● top management support,
● evaluation of time and cost,
● gradual implementation,
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● thorough testing,
● training and documentation, and
● system backup.
Of these seven, the involvement of users ‘through all of the stages’ is highlighted as the sin-gle most important element.
The implementation of Information System technologies can be highly disruptive. Poorly supervised projects may, without care, lead to the organisation operating in an ineffec-tive manner. Managers must (collecineffec-tively) ensure that disruptions are kept to a minimum.
Alternatively one manager may need to supervise a major IS project to ensure its smooth implementation. Systems implementation is sometimes treated as a separate project involving formal project management techniques and the designation of a named project manager. An implementation schedule needs to be created, and the activities required for successful imple-mentation carefully planned. Tools such as critical path analysis might usefully be deployed.
Denton (2002) makes the point that while the process of implementing a piece of soft-ware may vary in terms of time, resource and general upheaval depending on the type of system and the size and complexity of the organisation. The steps that need to be followed however are common, and if they are properly executed there will be successful implemen-tation, namely:
Justifi cation, defi nition and planning of the project
Requirement analysis: The degree of customisation of the software in order to meet busi-ness requirements, and the change of busibusi-ness process due to introducing the new system.
Implementation: A number of factors could be critical during the implementation stage, these include top level support, engagement of users and managers, behavioural issues, aligning the new system and business process, training, systems changeover and user support.
Support: Monitoring system performance and supporting users followed by system evaluation.
A critical activity prior to changeover is testing the new system to ensure that it is working correctly before going live. Ultimate users should be involved in conducting tests of several kinds, possibly in a sequence indicated in Table 2.6.
Decisions will need to be made over the training needs of system users and their manag-ers. The requirements of the new system users are likely to involve training in basic compu-ter licompu-teracy and user skills if the system is a move from manual to compucompu-terised one. If the move is from one computerised system to another training will emphasise learning how to use specifi c applications quickly. This training might be delivered through structured ses-sions, on-the-job training, or involve frequent training updates as the users become more familiar with the system.
Middle management is also likely to require training on those elements of the system for which they are responsible. It is unlikely that they will require detailed user knowledge but they will need an understanding of the particular business issues and security and control features related to a particular system.
The post-implementation review should identify whether the user’s needs are being sat-isfi ed. Systems maintenance can be performed in response to specifi c user needs identi-fi ed as part of this review or as a result of ongoing process. Systems maintenance is the
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repair, correction or further enhancement of systems once in operation and can take sev-eral forms:
● Corrective maintenance remedies errors within the existing system, normally identifi ed as a result of some problem occurring. Corrective maintenance is reactive by nature and its main function is to ensure that the system can continue to operate. It has been estimated that this represents 20% of all maintenance time.
● Adaptive (or adaptative) maintenance is carried out in order to adjust applications to refl ect changing business operations or the wider environment. This type of maintenance is likely to be more of a mid- to long-term maintenance process. It has been estimated that typically this also represents 20% of all maintenance time.
● Perfective (or preventative) maintenance aims to prevent possible failures in the future or to make the system nearer perfect, so improving effi ciency.
Occasionally implementation produces diffi culties and challenges for the manager of a human rather than technical kind! Implementation may be met with employee resistance, either direct or passive. Inevitably there may be a variety of reasons for this and every indi-vidual case is unique. Reasonable speculation of the likely reasons can however be made in the most general of terms. These reasons could be:
● the chosen methods of implementation may be felt to be inappropriate,
● there may have been faulty communication,
● there may have been a lack of adequate training.
Exercise 2.8
Suggest potential problems that might arise if there is either inadequate or inappropriate user training following the introduction of a new system.
Solution
● Fear of new system’s effect on jobs
● Fear of the unknown
Table 2.6 System testing
Type Description Purpose
Realistic tests Presents the system with a realistic example of the environment in which the system is to operate.
Tests the system and the understanding and effectiveness of training of users.
It also gives users confi dence before they take over the system.
Contrived tests Presents the system with as many unusual and unexpected events as possible, such as incorrect codes, wrong amounts, inappropriate commands, and so on.
To see how the system reacts, and whether all conceivable anomalies have been catered for in the system.
Volume tests Presents the system with a large volume of transactions.
To see how it reacts, particularly in operating and response times.
Acceptance tests The users undertake acceptance testing after all other systems testing is complete.
To test the complete system, and to ensure that it is satisfactory from the users’ point of view.
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● Reluctance to use the new system
● Errors in processing (either deliberate or accidental)
● Slower processing due to a lack of confi dence, unfamiliarity or covert sabotage
● Staff turnover or absence arising from avoidance of the new system.
Resistance in the wake of the implementation of an IS system should be acknowledged as little different by nature to the resistance met by implementation of any form of organi-sational change. Obviously anticipation of problems beforehand to avoid confl ict is prefer-able. Nevertheless, should confl ict arise tactics can be evolved to deal with the situation.
Kotter, Schlesinger and Sathe (1992) identifi ed six main methods of exercising infl uence to overcome resistance, namely:
● education and communication,
● participation and involvement,
● facilitation and support,
● negotiation and agreement,
● manipulation and co-optation,
● explicit and/or implicit coercion.
The fi nal two methods raise ethical and legal problems as well as involving considerable risk of making the situation worse. These six approaches are not mutually exclusive and managers may fi nd it effective to use a combination of them. The most appropriate approach in each instance will depend on a variety of factors, including the goals of the change programme and the likely reactions of the people involved. One of the problems of choosing the ‘right’
approach is that people will not always openly admit the real reasons for opposing change. In particular, those reasons relating to self-interest are likely to be disguised as technical objec-tions, arguing that the proposed system will not work. Attempts to deal with these technical objections will not get to the root cause of the resistance to change. Only in a climate in which individuals feel free to discuss their objections and fears openly will it be possible for managers to understand and deal with the underlying reasons for resistance.
Exercise 2.9
If a manager discovers that there are instances of non-usage of the systems how might this be interpreted?
Solution
It may be as being a result of a number of reasons, including:
● An expression of resistance. In this case appropriate infl uencing measures should be applied (see above).
● A lack of confi dence in the new system, in which case enhanced communication is required and system modifi cation should be applied where appropriate.
● A lack confi dence in their own abilities to cope with the new system. In this case train-ing and other support mechanisms should be addressed.
Exercise 2.10
Review Kotter and Schlesinger’s listing and identify the conditions under which each of these methods might ‘work’.
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Solution
There is no right or wrong answer, and your thinking is likely to be as valid so long as it is based on commonsense and your own experience.
Education and communication
● Useful when the problem is a lack of information about the need for, or the nature of, the planned change of system.
● Can be very time-consuming and will not work by itself if there are reasons other than misunderstanding for resisting the change.
Participation and involvement
● Increases the probability that people will be committed to the system and if their views are taken into account, this may enhance the effectiveness of implementation.
● Appropriate when the individuals initiating the change do not have all the necessary information and when the people affected by the change have considerable power to resist it.
● Can be time-consuming.
Facilitation and support
● Involves the use of techniques such as training and group discussions designed to reduce fear and anxiety.
● Particularly appropriate where the main reason for resistance is based on insecurity and adjustment problems.
Negotiation and agreement
● May be necessary where an individual or a group stands to lose out in some way because of the change, particularly if they also have the power to resist the change.
● May help to avoid major problems.
● Disadvantages are that it can be expensive and also it can encourage others to negotiate to ‘buy’ their compliance.
Manipulation and co-optation
● Relies on presenting partial or misleading information to the people resisting the change. Co-optation involves identifying key individuals resisting changes and
‘buying them off’ by giving them positions of authority to help implement the change.
● A quick and relatively inexpensive approach, it will probably result in future problems if the people involved realise they have been manipulated.
Explicit and implicit coercion
● Involves the use of force, or the threat of it, to bring about change.
● May be necessary as a very last resort if the parties involved are operating from fi xed positions and there are fundamental disagreements over objectives and/or methods.