Ejecutoria Suprema del 22/09/2000. R.N.N.° 306-2000-Apurimac 51

One of the great challenges facing tourism managers is to clearly understand the factors that motivate individuals to choose one particular destination over the myriad other possibilities. When all the complexities of destination choice are stripped away, it is essentially the core resources and attractors that underlie the basic desire to travel to a given destination. These also provide the foundation for an exciting and memorable destination experience. As shown in Fig. 6.1, the core resources and attractors are of seven major types.

1. The physiography of the destination, most particularly the landscape, scenery and climate.

In effect, it is the visual and sensual pleasure derived from these elements that provides some of the most fundamental physical enjoyments of tourism.

2. The culture and history of the destination in turn furnish much of the intellectual satisfaction from visitations.

3. The range and mix of activities available at a destination provide the primary foundation of both the physical and emotional stimulation that excites and challenges the visitor.

©CAB International 2003.The Competitive Destination: a Sustainable Tourism Perspective

110 (J.R. Brent Ritchie and Geoffrey I. Crouch)

Destination competitiveness and sustainability

Qualifying and amplifying determinants Destination policy, planning and development

Destination management

Core resources and attractors

Supporting factors and resources

Competitive(micro)environment Global(macro)environment

Comparative advantages

(resource endowments)

Competitive advantages

(resource deployment)

Physiography

and climate Culture and history Mix of activities Special events Entertainment Superstructure Market ties

4. The various special events offered by a destination create much of the dynamics and the uniqueness that make a destination memorable.

5. The different components of the destina-tion’s superstructure, while often highly varied in nature, tend to provide a substantial percent-age of what is perceived as the fundamental tourism character of a destination.

6. The types of entertainment found at a destination are frequently designed to comple-ment the different activities and events that a destination offers. Conversely, for other desti-nations the strength of the entertainment may itself be the primary appeal of the destination.

7. The strength of market ties frequently serves as a major catalyst for destination visitation that involves human relationships.

Destination Physiography and Climate: the Natural Edge From a tourism management perspective, it is somewhat ironic that natural physiography and climate – among the most important determinants of destination competitiveness – are largely beyond the control and even the influence of destination managers. The extent to which the natural climate and terrain are hospitable to humans provides a set of natural parameters (Fig. 6.2) that either endow a

destination with competitive appeal or create barriers that must constantly be adapted to, overcome or managed around. A comfortable, constant climate immediately provides a base-line of attractiveness for the great majority of visitors. While niche markets may seek unique and demanding climates, these are generally the exception. Market segments wishing to visit extremes of hot and cold, such as deserts, jungles and arctic regions, represent a relatively small percentage of the total travel market. While these market segments may be lucrative in the right circumstances, they do not represent the mainstream of tourism.

Those destinations that are blessed with a ‘natural edge’ are becoming increasingly attractive in today’s world of overpopulation and pollution. Indeed, this dimension of destina-tion appeal has become so significant that it has recently resulted in the creation of ‘natural area tourism’ (Newsome et al., 2002). Newsome et al., in turn, identify four subcategories that they define as adventure tourism, nature-based tourism, wildlife tourism and ecotourism.

Regardless of the semantics, their book provides an excellent overview for those desti-nation managers who wish to develop and focus on the natural edge as the strategic philosophy for a destination.

The majority of destinations that have a favourable climate tend to build their competi-tive position around this natural advantage.

Spain, for example, has developed a symbol Fig. 6.1. Core resources and attractors: the factors that motivate travel and draw visitors to a

destination.

based on the sun that has almost become its national flag. The many island destinations that enjoy favourable climates in attractive locations have given rise to the well known three ‘S’s’

in tourism: sun, sand and sea. Aggressive marketers have sometimes added a fourth ‘S’.

As is well known in marketing, sex sells!

Closely tied to climate is the actual physical character of the destination. The degree to which the physiography of a destination is hos-pitable to human activity again provides very fundamental advantages and disadvantages.

Relatively smooth, vegetation-covered terrain that has convenient access to fresh water and high-quality recreation areas provides humans (and animals) with a physical environment that most easily accommodates their physiology.

While variations in topography, as well as in vegetation and wildlife, add novelty and variety, the human body prefers to avoid extremes.

Other destinations may not possess entirely favourable climates but are blessed with magnificent scenery. Regions that contain rugged mountain ranges provide some of the world’s most spectacular scenery. The Alps of Europe, Asia’s Himalayas, South America’s Andes and the jagged Rockies of North

America all compete to attract travellers who seek eye-popping mountain views, the thrill of traversing high mountain passes and, for some, the challenge of mountaineering in the world’s most elevated peaks.

An excellent example of a destination that thrives on the appeal of its majestic vistas is Canada’s Banff National Park. In this instance, the destination is so successful that we are faced with the need for both marketing and

‘demarketing’. The goal of tourism marketing is to attract visitors who are interested in high-quality nature but to limit total visitation to a level that is not injurious to the environmental health of the region.

As we embark on a new century, Banff National Park currently welcomes over 5 mil-lion visitors annually. The park is so successful that this level of visitation risks incurring ecolog-ical damage so severe that it could eventually destroy much of the park’s appeal. The ecologi-cal damage that experts allege is taking place relates both to the level of visitation (the number of people) and the type of visitation (what people do while in the park). Because of the park’s success, the environmental marketing goal is to ensure that visitors who are attracted Fig. 6.2. Destination physiography and climate: elements of the natural edge.

will respect the environmental integrity of the region.

From a destination marketing perspective, the challenge in such situations is twofold. First, the overall level of demand needs to be be kept at a point that can be comfortably accom-modated by the existing infrastructure. This seeks to make optimal economic use of existing investments without creating the need for new facility developments that could contribute to environmental degradation in the area. Second, within existing levels of visitation, attempts must be made to attract those visitors whose behaviour while in the Park is most environ-mentally sensitive. Such visitors will have minimum impact on the ecological integrity of the Park.

Marketing efforts that pursue the above goal have two characteristics. First, they should be such as to appeal to environmentally con-scious individuals. Second, they must be placed within media most commonly read/viewed by environmentally conscious citizens. Regardless of how it is done, all marketing related to the natural edge of a destination’s physiography and climate must constantly keep in mind that this competitive edge is a gift that is only sustainable if it is carefully managed.

Those destinations that possess neither a particularly favourable climate nor outstanding scenery are left to improvise in their efforts to compete in the very competitive tourism marketplace. For many, this amounts to an often futile effort to attract visitors to a destina-tion that most would prefer either to leave or to bypass. The spark of genius is especially required in such situations. Branson, Missouri (a very ‘ordinary’ destination) has become the number one bus tour destination of the USA through the development of a very special and limited product that appeals to a very specific segment of the population – it is claimed to have more live entertainment than anywhere else in the USA. Las Vegas, USA, emerges as a desti-nation that demonstrates how an arid desert region can be transformed into a tourism Mecca through ingenious policy changes combined with managerial imagination and entrepreneur-ship. Before lavishing too much praise on Las Vegas, however, one must keep in mind the importance of location. Its proximity to the large markets of California provides a

comparative advantage that greatly strengthens its competitive position. In contrast, other destinations that must live with more limited markets and an unfavourable (or at best medio-cre) physiography or climate must initiate strategies to counter, minimize or even take advantage of their impacts on the destination’s ability to compete. Some of these strategies will now be discussed.

•

The building of artificial environments that negate the environmental inhospi-tality of a region. By far the most com-mon way of managing around adversity is evident in the thousands of air-conditioned convention centres and hotels that attract and accommodate visitors to destinations all over the world, whose climates many consider unbearably hot and humid during certain times (or even all) of the year. By creating comfortable artificial worlds within well-known desti-nations during their off season, some destinations have managed to remain relatively competitive, thereby keeping a large investment in facilities and employ-ees operating and acceptably profitable.

•

Using a unique attraction to effectively take physiography and climate out of the picture as a competitive factor. For example, the city of Xian, China, a quite average destination, attracts large num-bers of visitors by promoting the recently discovered terracotta soldiers. This site is a world-class archaeological find whose uniqueness and quality enable this modest urban destination to build a thriving tourism industry.

•

The development and promotion of a special event that takes advantage of and even highlights physiographical and/or climatic adversity. As an example, Quebec City, Canada, tackled the adversity of the coldest climatic period of the year by creating the Quebec Winter Carnival, in effect a celebration of winter.

Part of the celebration involves the construction of ice sculptures as part of an international ice-sculpting contest, and the hosting of a canoe race across the broad, ice-filled St Lawrence River attracts the international media, which in turn

multiplies the reputation of the destina-tion. The event has become so successful from a tourism perspective that it has led to the building of an ‘Ice Hotel’, where occupancy during the 10 days of the event economically justifies its construction and operation. Imagine attracting visitors who are happy to pay relatively high rates to sleep in a hotel whose walls are made of

•

ice!The enhancement of overall destination awareness through media attention drawn by some unpleasant aspect of the destination that is of little interest to most tourists. Hiroshima, Japan, the now-famous ‘Bridge on the River Kwai’

in Myanmar (formerly Burma) and the Little Big Horn area in Montana, USA are located in areas that might normally not attract visitors, but because each of these locations gained notoriety as a result of a military event they do tend to attract a certain category of tourist. As a further example, the country of Nepal in the Himalayan mountains, despite its spectac-ular scenery, has had to counter the nega-tive realities of its inhospitable location by basing much of its tourism promotion on the fact it is located near the base of one of the world’s highest and most well-known challenges for many of the world’s mountaineers. The Marathon des Sables in Morocco in northern Africa draws world-wide attention to one of the hottest, most inhospitable areas of the word.

While the location of the race is not itself a major tourism destination, the event attracts considerable media attention to Morocco, thus helping the country build world awareness and enhancing the competitiveness of other aspects of the destination.

•

The use of mega-events to build the global reputation of a destination and to leave behind visible legacies that may in time become destination icons.

Perhaps the most audacious of all efforts to enhance the reputation of the competi-tiveness of an often rather ordinary destination is through the hosting of what are termed ‘mega-events’. Relatively unknown cities have attained international

prominence by hosting the Olympic Games (both Summer and Winter). Cities such as Innsbruck (Austria), Calgary (Canada), Sapporo (Japan) and Salt Lake City (USA) are now modestly famous worldwide as a legacy derived from the hosting of the Olympic Games. Even much smaller centres, such as Lake Placid (USA), Lillehammer (Norway) and Albertville (France), have had a brief moment of fame through their involve-ment with the Olympic moveinvolve-ment. Inter-national Expositions and World Fairs are another type of well-established form of mega-event that can build the present and future competitiveness of a destination.

The 1937 Paris International Exposition in France not only attracted visitors but also left behind the Eiffel Tower, arguably the world’s single most recognizable tour-ism icon. Expo ’67 in Montreal repre-sented the worldwide coming of age of Canada as it reached its 100th birthday as a country, and truly placed it in the world of international tourism. Expo ’86 in Van-couver, Canada served as the stimulus for imaginative development that has moved Vancouver closer towards being regarded as one of the great cities of the world, a service that the 2000 Summer Olympics also rendered to Sydney, Australia. Per-haps more significantly, Expo ’86 in Vancouver served as the catalyst for making tourism the number one industry in the entire province of British Columbia.

Even much smaller cities, such as Spokane (Washington, USA), Knoxville (Tennessee, USA), Brisbane (Australia), Seville (Spain) and Hanover (Germany) have seen their more modest stature substantially enhanced through their hosting of smaller, yet highly significant international expositions in 1974, 1982, 1988, 1992 and 2000, respectively.

•

The establishment of niche (specialized) attractions in very unattractive or mun-dane regions of a destination. While Disney World is now globally successful, it must not be forgotten that it was originally built on a large, unattractive swamp area of central Florida, USA, and is based on the original concept of Disneyland for

California, USA. In brief, Disney World is an example of how a worthless swamp area has been transformed into a travel Mecca. In the process, the success of Disney World has driven the growth of Orlando, a city which now has some 105,782 hotel rooms and which provides, through tourism, employment for 211,000 persons. More importantly, it has provided and continues to provide memorable vacation experiences for both young and old visitors from around the world. The establishment of the Baseball Hall of Fame in Cooperstown, New York, USA, has put the name of this small destination on the lips of many Americans and made it a Mecca for baseball fans.

The overall conclusion that must be faced, from a destination management standpoint, is that certain destinations may possess distinct natural advantages for a large percentage of many market segments. Destinations that lack these natural advantages face two main alternatives.

•

They may make efforts to adapt to their geographical reality by minimizing the negative consequences of their climate and topography. The examples above show how this has been done.

•

They may restrict their marketing efforts to, or focus them on, those market seg-ments for which the negative dimensions of a destination’s topography or climate are of less concern, or even of special appeal. Two examples follow.

•

Tours to the Antarctic, which appeal to a very limited percentage of the travel market. However, those who do wish to travel to this remote area, to see the penguins and rare ice formations, are willing to pay on the order of $10,000 per person to experience this very unique destination.

•

Tours to the jungles of the Amazon, which seek to attract those who desire a unique travel experience.

While safety is not inconsequential, tourists to the Amazon are prepared to accept food and accommodation

that do not appeal to a large percentage of the travel market.

No one destination can hope to attract or host all types of visitation, even though it may dream of attracting each and every traveller at least once! Given this reality, it behoves any par-ticular destination, once it has clearly defined its appeals and benefits, to develop marketing programmes targeted at those most likely to value these appeals and benefits. This approach is not only logical – it is financially realistic.

The challenge inherent in implementing the above approach is to identify the individuals in the market segments of probable interest – or to at least identify the media by which they are most likely to be reached.

Destination Culture: the Lure of Human Distinctiveness

Culture, broadly defined, is a second very pow-erful dimension of destination attractiveness.

As one classic study has demonstrated (Table 6.1), the cultural and social characteristics of a region are second only to physiography (natural beauty and climate) in determining the attractiveness of a tourism destination (Ritchie and Zins, 1978). While this study is somewhat dated and relates directly to only one specific destination, it is one of the few that provides some indication of the relative significance of a destination’s culture as a factor in determining its market appeal.

The elements of culture

The study by Ritchie and Zins (1978) identified some 12 sub-components or elements of culture that were important in influencing the tourism attractiveness of a region. As seen in Fig. 6.3, these elements are:

•

the handicrafts of the region;

•

the language spoken by residents;

•

the traditions that characterize the region;

•

the gastronomy or style of food preparation particular to the region;

•

the art and music identified with the region, including paintings, sculpture and concerts;

•

the history of the region, including its visual reminders;

•

the methods of work or technology partic-ular to a region (such as a space centre, fishing and farming);

•

architecture, both exterior and interior, which lends a distinctive appearance to a region;

•

the religion that is of particular sig-nificance to a region (including its visible manifestations);

•

the education system that is characteristic of a region;

•

styles of dress that are characteristic of a region; and

•

leisure activities reflecting the distinctive lifestyles of a region.

What is culture?

There have been a number of attempts to define culture. One basic dictionary definition of culture is as follows:

The totality of socially transmitted behavior patterns, arts, beliefs, institutions and all other products of human work and thought characteristic of a community or population.

(Adapted from American Heritage Dictionary, 1985, p. 348) Another definition of particular interest is this:

A historically created system of explicit and implicit designs for living, which tend to be shared by all, or specifically designated mem-bers of a group at a specified point in time.

(Kluckhohn and Kelly, 1945) The emphasis here is on the explicit components of culture that are readily visible to the traveller.

Factor

Ordinal rank in importance

Average importance on

interval scale

Interval order

Interval order

In document FACULTAD DE DERECHO Y HUMANIDADES ESCUELA PROFESIONAL DE DERECHO TESIS (página 51-61)