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How children learn and develop the knowledge of the world is firstly discussed based on some representative educators' theories. Then, the correlation between play and learning is considered.

2.2.1. What do we mean by child development?

According to Aries (1962), the word childhood itself is a relatively recent concept. Even until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, people's recognition of children was not the same as it is with today’s understanding. In the past children were compelled to behave like adults and children's rights was not an important issue (Aries, 1962). However, it seems the common agreement these days is that children should not be regarded simply as small adults. With a generalised perception that children are not the same as adults, studies about childhood and children seemed to be pursued more actively.

One of the influential figures in child development is Jean Piaget. Piaget's basic idea is that the series of stages of development are qualitatively different from each other, and these stages are passed through in order (Sutherland, 1992). Piaget divided the development stages into four: the periods of sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete-operational and formal operational (Flavell et al, 1993). He also suggested approximate ages for each stage. Piaget believed development is more fundamental

than learning (Ginsburg & Opper, 1979). Piaget insisted that 'learning is subordinated to development and not vice-versa' (Piaget, 1964: 17).

Piaget's theory that the development of a child needs to precede the learning process, and there are certain acquired skills and knowledge for each different age group of children, was refuted head on by Margaret Donaldson. Donaldson (1978) stated that cognitive achievement is not facilitated only by mental maturity but is also dependant on some stimulation from the outside. She recognised the possibility of development via the interactions between human and society. This is why she emphasised the role of both teacher and parents in facilitating achievement (Donaldson, 1978). She wrote that a teacher or a parent in a teaching role should guide 'the child towards tasks where he will be able objectively to do well, but not too easily, not without putting forth some effort, not without difficulties to be mastered, errors to be overcome, creative solutions to be found' (Donaldson, 1978: 114-115).

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky also held a different opinion on child development and learning from Piaget's. Vygotsky introduced ZPD to define the relationship between development and learning. His explanation is as follows.

It (zone of proximal development) is the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers(Vygotsky, 2001: 26).

Vygotsky asserted that 'only good learning is that which is in advance of development' (Vygotsky, 2001: 27). Through good learning, development can be supported and in ZPD this progression happens. Vygotsky's socio-cultural approach was against Piaget's developmental theory, which was widely accepted at that time (Hatch, 2012).

Jerome Bruner (1966) accepted that there are certain sequences of children's development, similar to Piaget's notion. However, he believed that 'any subject can be taught in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of

development' (Bruner, 1977: 33). The emphasis here is very different from Piaget. In addition, he insisted that external help is necessary for learning (Bruner, 1966). He suggested three modes of representation; enactive representation, iconic

representation, and symbolic representation (Bruner, 1966). He believed that a human firstly learns by doing (enactive representation), then learns through images (iconic representation) and eventually by using symbols (symbolic representation) (Bruner, 1966). Bruner (1966) insisted that children need different amounts and kinds of help at each stage, and environment supports learners' internalized learning. Wood, Bruner and Rose (1976) introduced the notion of scaffolding to explain kinds of guidance and support to children accepting Vygotsky's ZPD. Scaffolding is 'the process whereby a more expert partner offers help to a child in problem solving by adjusting both the amount and kind of help to the child's level of performance' (Schaffer, 2006:128). Wood et al (1976) addressed the idea that children's learning can be promoted by helpers from the outside. With the idea that children can build their own knowledge based on what they have already learned, Bruner (1977) suggested the spiral curriculum. In the spiral curriculum, deeper and wider

knowledge and information are dealt as students move to upper grades, although sometimes the kinds of subject are the same for upper and lower grade students.

It is evident, then, that Vygotsky and Bruner regarded children as active thinkers and actors. They advocated that learning can be promoted if a stimulating environment and help for learning are provided. Children can be placed in a stimulating environment when they are playing.

2.2.2. Play and learning

The positive effect of play is generally accepted in development psychology. Meadows (1986) adopted the following motto from Alfed Adler, which has been accepted in psychological and educational theory: play is the child's work. She asserted that our society seems to have a clear distinction between work and play, but children's play is as significant as an adults' work. Meanwhile Garvey (1977) arranged the features of play. According to Garvey, play is pleasurable and brings positive impact. Play is voluntarily and instinctively occurring for its own sake with requirement of active participation. Meadows added that the enjoyable and delighted feeling of children when they are playing contributes to 'children's emotional well- being' and to 'the child's self-esteem and feeling of self-efficacy' (Meadows, 1986: 30). In addition, play can contribute to children's development and learning. Sylva et al (1974) emphasized play as a tool for problem solving. Vygotsky (1978) described play as a cause of ZPD. While children are playing they naturally go beyond the

daily actions of their average age, and in play they can experience a span of life that is more mature than themselves.

Piaget (1962) too, despite his emphasis an internal development, saw play as central to children's learning. He asserted that children's play firstly starts to repeat actions in the practice play stage, moving to the symbolic play stage in which children manipulate symbols while playing. In this development stage of play, assimilation and accommodation can be found. According to Piaget, assimilation is the tendency to apply new information and experience to one’s own existing schema when we have new information and experience. In addition, accommodation means a kind of modification to reset our own schema to recognise new information and experience. According to Piaget, accommodation can be found in practice play. While children repeat and practice actions, the accommodation process is happening. On the other hand, Piaget believed assimilation made symbolic play possible.

Depending on one’s imagination, an ordinary object can be changed into a special object in symbolic play. For instance, a normal stick can become a horse or a magic broom in symbolic play. Because this changes a human's structure of recognition (from a stick to a horse), assimilation has occurred. The interesting point is the practical and symbolic features can also be found in drama practice with story.

In addition, the connection between play and drama can be found in Brouce's classification of play. Brouce (1991) divided play into four main types; functional play, constructive play, rule-governed play and socio-dramatic play. Functional play contains repetition, imitation, modification and exploration activities. Functional play helps children to learn about their bodily abilities and their influence on the

set a plan and enjoy creating according to their own plan. Then children begin to enjoy games with rules and eventually develop their growing awareness of sociality. During this stage, social interactions and relationships can be found with symbolic portrayals. At first glance it may seem that drama is simply connected with only socio-dramatic play, but drama practice with stories can also provide the experience of repetitions, imitation modification and exploration of actions, of rules and plans, and of social interaction and symbolic expression. The details of drama will be described in 2.4.

The theory that children actually learn via play provides the clue to how drama with story can also contribute to children's development and learning, because drama with story shares many of its strengths with play. Furthermore, it also

provides some tips for organising the wider balanced primary curriculum.