EJEMPLO - RESUMEN DE RIESGOS

Dynasty

Little is known about ancient Egypt’s Early Dynastic Period (also called the Archaic Period), which lasted from about 3050 to 2705 BCE. It appears, however, that despite the refinement of Egyptian culture that took place during the First Dynasty, the end of the era was marked by civil strife. The main cause of this apparently was conflict be- tween two religious groups, the cult of HORUS, which dominated the south, and the cult of SETH, which was the main RELIGIONof the northern NILE DELTAregion.

Struggles between adherents of Horus and Seth con- tinued into the Second Dynasty, leading to a decline in the pharaohs’ authority. This seems to have led to rival claims to the throne, each claimant allied with one of the DEITIES. Various rulers made attempts to resolve the conflict, most notably Hetepsekhemwy (also known as Raneb). His name, which means “peaceful in respect of the two pow- ers,” is probably a reference to his mediation of the strife.

Hetepsekhemwy, however, was unable to resolve the conflict permanently. The situation worsened, possibly even leading to a civil war between UPPER EGYPT and LOWER EGYPT. Although few details are known, peace seems to have been restored, at least temporarily, by Khasekhem, who reigned from approximately 2725 to 2705 BCE. His royal name translates as “the two lords are at peace in him,” suggesting both a meeting of the gods, Horus and Seth, and a temporary resolution of the conflicts disrupting the king- dom. Khasekhem’s tomb, the largest in ABYDOS, was discov- ered in the late 19th century.

Khoisan languages

Least widespread of the four major families of African languages. The Khoisan languages— including Nama and !KUNG—have nearly become extinct today and are kept alive primarily by the Khoikhoi and SAN peoples of present-day SOUTH AFRICA, whose origins apparently lie in prehistoric times.

Like many other African tongues, Khoisan languages use differences in tonality to distinguish meanings. Vocal inflection is employed, especially in the Khoikhoi and San languages, to indicate case, number, and gender. The unique feature of Khoisan languages, however, is the use of special consonants known as clicks. (Khoisan is also called the Click family of languages.) English speakers use similar click sounds in a very limited way: tsk-tsk, for example, or the chk-chk noises used to signal HORSES. In

Khoisan languages, however, these click sounds function not as words themselves, but only as parts of words.

Khoisan languages employ a wide variety of click sounds, all produced through a sucking action of the tongue. By altering the positioning of the tongue and the way one releases air into the mouth, a Khoisan speaker can create a great number of different click sounds. Khoisan speakers produce various clicks by placing the tongue against the teeth, the palate, the alveolus (the inner surface of the gums of the upper front teeth), the inside of the cheek, or the lips. Curling the tip of the tongue up and back so that the underside of the tongue touches the palate produces yet another kind of click.

San languages feature six different types of clicks— though no single San language employs all of them. The Khoikhoi employ four kinds: dental (with the tongue against the teeth), palatal (against the palate), lateral (against the inside of the cheek), and retroflex (with the underside of the tongue against the palate). Over time, the use of some Khoisan click sounds eventually spread to nearby BANTU LANGUAGES, including Zulu, Sotho, and Xhosa.

See also:KHOIKHOI(Vols. II, III, IV, V); SOTHO(Vol. III); XHOSA(Vols. II, III, IV, V); ZULU(Vol. III).

Further reading: Lars-Gunnar Andersson and Tore Janson, Languages in Botswana: Language Ecology in

Southern Africa (Gaborone, Botswana: Longman Botswana,

1997); J. F. Maho, The Few People, Many Tongues: Languages

of Namibia (Gamsberg, Namibia: Macmillan, 1998);

Mathias Schladt, ed., Identity and Conceptualization among

the Khoisan (Cologne, Germany: R. Köppe, 1998).

Khormusan

Early STONE AGE people from prehistoric Nubia. Fishers and HUNTER-GATHERERS, the Khormusan are believed to have settled in Lower Nubia’s NILE VALLEY about 50,000 years ago, coming originally from the then- fertile area of the SAHARA DESERT. Excavations at Khor Musa, near Wadi Halfa, and other sites have revealed ex- amples of Khormusan stone tools as well as remnants of the substantial settlements in which the Khormusan lived.

Khufu (Cheops)

(r. c. 2550–c. 2523 BCE) Pharaoh of an-

cient Egypt who had the Great Pyramid of Giza built

Assuming the throne in about 2550 BCE, Khufu, also known as Cheops, was the second king of the Egyptian Fourth Dynasty, ruling ancient EGYPT for approximately 24 years. His most notable accomplishment was the con- struction of the GREAT PYRAMID of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

The construction of the Great Pyramid provides im- portant insights into Khufu’s rule, for he transformed the project into a great socializing force for the nation. By using workers who would otherwise have been idle during 140 Khasekhem

the annual flooding of the NILE RIVER, Khufu provided his subjects with both employment and a unifying national goal. Beyond this, the pyramid’s construction required major achievements in SCIENCE, ASTRONOMY, mathematics, and ART, all of which were direct results of Khufu’s ability to inspire, mobilize, and organize his people.

Khufu’s ability to lead, however, was not the result of any liberality or generosity on his part. Indeed, in con- trast to his father, the benevolent King Sneferu, Khufu was reputed to be a cruel despot. In spite of this, how- ever, Khufu was renowned throughout Egyptian history, and even as late as the Twenty-sixth Dynasty he was wor- shiped as a god.

A tiny statuette depicting Khufu, discovered in the temple of OSIRISat ABYDOS, has become famous. In 1954 a funeral ship belonging to Khufu was also uncovered in a pit near the Great Pyramid. It is currently displayed in the Boat Museum on the site of the original pit.

Kikuyu

Language and people of East Africa living in present-day KENYA. Although no exact dating of their ar- rival in the area is possible, the Kikuyu have long been a diverse mix of tribal peoples who trace their ancestry to the Thagicu, Igembe, Tigania, Gumba, Athi, and MAASAI people. According to Kikuyu oral history, the Kikuyu god (Ngai) commanded Gikuyu, the forefather of the Kikuyu, to build his home near Mount KENYA. The area was full of fig trees, so he named it Mukurue wa Gathanga (Tree of the Building Site). Ngai sent Gikuyu a wife, Mumbi. Gikuyu and Mumbi had nine daughters. Along with one other child, their daughters became the progenitors of the 10 ancestral clans of the Kikuyu.

The merging of multiple cultures produced an eclectic mix of Kikuyu rituals over the centuries. From the Thagicu people they adopted ceremonial dances and INITI- ATION RITES, and initiation ceremonies became a pillar in Kikuyu life. Young men and women were fully integrated into village life after CIRCUMCISIONand clitoridectomy cer- emonies. Males became warriors at this time, and female social responsibilities increased beyond the village proper.

See also:KIKUYU(Vols, II, III, IV, V).

Kilimanjaro, Mount

At an elevation of 19,336 ft. (5,895 m), the highest mountain in Africa and the high- est free-standing mountain in the world. Located in pre- sent-day TANZANIA, near its border with KENYA, just south of the equator, Kilimanjaro lies at the southern end of the RIFT VALLEY. It is the largest of an east-west belt of about 20 volcanoes. Kilimanjaro is a triple volcano, having three volcanic cones. The surrounding countryside testifies to the forces of nature and the movement of tectonic plates that created Kilimanjaro and other volcanoes in the region as well as the Rift Valley.

The mountain is divided into three natural zones: the peak, which is a volcanic plug and is covered in glaciers and snow, an alpine zone, with distinctive rain forest VEG- ETATION; and the gentle lower slopes, which are covered with mountain forests and bamboo jungle. Mount Kili- manjaro receives plentiful rainfall.

In Swahili the name of the mountain is Kilima Njaro, meaning “shining mountain.” The MAASAI call it Kilima Dscharo, meaning “white mountain.” The majority of the people living around the mountain are Chagga, a Bantu- speaking group.

See also:CHAGGA(Vol. III).

kola nuts

Seeds rich in caffeine, chewed as a stimulant and used in various ceremonies in traditional African cul- tures. The kola, or cola, tree, native to West Africa, is re- lated to the cacao tree, from which chocolate is made. Its seeds, called guru or goora nuts in West Africa, are about 1.5 inches (3.8 cm) long and are traditionally chewed as a stimulant. Kola nuts contain large amounts of caffeine as well as smaller amounts of other stimulants and may be mildly addictive. Like gum, they are chewed to quell thirst and refresh the breath. The nutritional value of the kola nut is negligible. Beverages made from kola nuts are prized by Muslims, whom the Quran does not permit to drink alcohol.

In western Africa the kola nut is less important as a crop with value in the ECONOMYthan as a tool of commu- nication and ritual. As a stimulant it serves the culturally important function of a social lubricant. Kola nuts have long been a core element in religious and magical cere- monies, used as offerings to DEITIES, to make love po- tions, and to foretell the future. The nuts also are used as symbolic currencies to pay off debts of a ritual nature.

From September to June the nuts are harvested by climbers. The seeds are extracted from their star-shaped pods and processed by sun-drying or piled into heaps for “sweating.”

!Kung

Ancient people inhabiting isolated areas of southern Africa for thousands of years; known among themselves as the Zhun/twas, or “the real people.” Long subsisting as HUNTER-GATHERERS, the !Kung are believed to have lived in southern Africa for thousands of years before the BANTU EXPANSION began about 2,000 years ago. Over the centuries exposure to the easier lifestyle of their Bantu-speaking neighbors has led many !Kung to modify or even abandon their traditional way of life, al- though a few !Kung continue their ancient lifestyle, de- spite its difficulties.

For thousands of years the environment inhabited by the !Kung has been made up of harsh, semiarid areas in what is now BOTSWANA, ANGOLA, and NAMIBIA. Composed !Kung 141

142 Kurru

of small hills and flat plains, even today the region’s land- scape is dominated by brush and grass. Trees and water have always been scarce. The area undergoes extreme temperatures ranging from below freezing in the winter to well over 100º F (38º C) in the summer.

For millennia the !Kung have lived in villages with populations ranging from approximately 10 to 30 people, and the ways of those currently following the !Kung’s tra- ditional lifestyle provide a good indication of how these people have lived since prehistoric times. The women spend two to three days each week foraging for FOODin

the desert. Given the nature of the land, this can be an ar- duous task, although it ultimately yields an apparently ad- equate supply of fruits, berries, nuts, and roots. !Kung men are responsible for hunting. Game is scarce, however, and the hunters often have to travel long distances before they can find and kill the wildebeest and other animals that are their prey. The hunt remains a communal activity, with the !Kung sharing whatever meat is obtained. Weap- ons include poison-tipped spears and arrows, which are made and maintained by the hunters themselves.

Traditional !Kung villages consist of an array of small grass huts arranged in a circle. The !Kung consider the middle of the circle to be common space, and it is in this central area that virtually all !Kung life—except sleeping— goes on. The !Kung play and cook here, as well as make the decisions upon which the village’s survival depends. Unlike many other groups, the !Kung function without a chief or formal leader, governing, instead, by consensus. Agreement is reached by long discussions in which every- one is given a chance to voice his or her opinion.

The !Kung believe that the spirit world is active in daily events ranging from sickness and death to the pres- ence of water or food. Ills and misfortunes, they believe, are caused by invisible arrows shot at the unfortunate ones by spirits. The !Kung maintain, however, that they can prevent, or even reverse, the action of these arrows through various activities. The most notable of these is the healing, or trance, DANCE. In it, dancers circle a fire

until they reach a trance. There, it is thought, they come into contact with n/um, a powerful spiritual force that al- lows everyone gathered around the fire to be healed.

See also: KHOISAN LANGUAGES (Vol. I); RELIGION, TRADITIONAL(Vol. I).

Further reading: Richard B. Lee, Irven DeVore, et al., eds. Kalahari Hunter-Gatherers: Studies of the !Kung San and Their Neighbors (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Marjorie Shostak, Nisa: The Life and Words of a !Kung Woman (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000).

Kurru

Part of the area known as Napata, capital of an- cient KUSH, in what is now northern Republic of the SUDAN;

renowned for the ancient burial grounds of the royalty of

Kush (c. 900–c. 700 BCE). Kurru, also known as al-Kurru,

was once the burial site of some of the great Kushite kings of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. The Egyptian tradition of bury- ing royalty beneath a pyramid was passed to the Kushites when they conquered EGYPT, and the first Kushite leaders

to build pyramids did so at Kurru. The existence of the burial sites at Kurru is thought to be the first evidence of a Kushite state, though scholars have not confirmed that it is the only burial ground of the Kushites of the time.

Shabaka (also called Shabako or Sabacon), the founder of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty after EGYPTwas con-

quered by the Kushites, and Shebitku (Sebichos), his suc- cessor, were both buried in PYRAMIDS at Kurru. A later

pharaoh, Tunuatamun (also known as Tanutamon), who was defeated by the ASSYRIANS at MEMPHIS and Thebes,

was also buried at Kurru.

Further reading: Lech Krzyzaniak, Karla Kroeper, and Michal Kobusiewicz, eds., Recent Research into the Stone Age of Northeastern Africa (Poznan, Poland: Poznan Archaeological Museum, 2000).

Kurundi

People who have long occupied the area now known as BURUNDI; also the name of the language they

speak. The Kurundi language, a Bantu language, is in the Benue-Congo branch of NIGER-CONGO LANGUAGES.

The Kurundi people, also called Rundi or Kirundi, are made up of three Kurundi-speaking ethnic groups: the Twa, the HUTU, and the Tutsi. The Twa were probably

the first Bantu-speaking people to come to the area. The Hutu made their living from AGRICULTURE, while the

Tutsi mainly practiced PASTORALISM. The precise reasons

for why and how these Bantu-speaking peoples began supplanting the native SAN people are not known. As a

result the influx—and dominance—of Bantu-speaking peoples, which dates to the beginnings of the common era, has been attributed to everything from the Bantu speakers’ skill at ironworking to their possible control of trade routes. It has even been associated with the Bantu speakers’ successful cultivation of the newly imported banana.

Kush

Ancient city and kingdom in Upper NUBIA,

based between the first and second cataracts of the NILE RIVER. The term Kush was apparently first used by

Egyptians during their Twelfth Dynasty to refer to the first Kushite kingdom established at the city of KERMA.

The Egyptians also used the names Kash, Kasu, and Khenet-hennferwere. By the 18th century BCE the name Ta-Seti (Land of the Bow), was also used in recognition of the kingdom’s famed archers known as LUNTIU-SETIU.

Kush was actually a series of three major kingdoms that rose to prominence when left in isolation and declined when dominated by EGYPT.

Kerma Period (c. 2400–c. 1570 BCE) Situated be-

tween the Nile’s third and fourth cataracts, Kerma was the earliest Kushite kingdom, and it went through several phases of development, beginning as an agricultural society that cultivated cereal grains (probably SORGHUM and MILLET).

As in much of the ancient world, these activities fos- tered Kerma’s development and helped to establish a class structure of ruling elites, priests, craft workers, and la- borers. Evidence also suggests that cultural practices in Kerma included sacrificial offerings and the use of burial tumuli, or grave mounds.

As time passed, trade relations elevated the Kush kingdom to an important position within the mercantile world of the RED SEA and the MEDITERRANEAN SEA. The kingdom’s abundant resources included GOLD, semi- precious stones, livestock, EBONY woods, IVORY, COPPER, and quarried stones. Trade routes were apparently ex- panded, creating what some historians have labeled a “Nubian Corridor,” which linked the NILE RIVERvalley to both the Mediterranean and the southern regions of Africa. The Kushites accomplished this by laying a form of track, known as a doilkos, that allowed boats to be pulled on land.

Unfortunately for the kingdom of Kush, its resources and accessibility also provided strong incentives for Egypt to assert its trading interests in the border areas of UPPER EGYPT and Lower Nubia. Egypt repeatedly invaded and occupied Kushite territory, reducing it to the status of a province. Archaeologists and historians speculate that these periods saw a process of Egyptianization that was reflected in numerous Egyptian-made artifacts and reli- gious icons.

During the fall of the MIDDLE KINGDOMand Egypt’s subsequent evacuation of Lower Nubia, the Kushite kingdom absorbed the territory abandoned by the Egyp- tians. These lands included the towns of Buhen and Mir- grissa, which had once been held by the Egyptians and in which important trade relations were already in place. A second Kushite rise to prominence occurred when Egypt relinquished political control to the HYKSOS, dur- ing the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period (c. 1820 –1570 BCE).

Only after the influence of the Hyksos came to an end was Egypt able to resume its domination of Nubia. At this time it even launched a number of military strikes against the Kush kingdom, ostensibly undertaken in re- taliation for trade and military alliances that the Kushite rulers had formed with the Hyksos. Kushite soldiers, mostly MEDJAYof the Eastern Desert, reportedly fought on both sides of the war.

Continued assaults against the Kush kingdom culmi- nated in the destruction of Kerma (c. 1550 BCE). With their kingdom annexed and transformed into an Egyptian province, the former inhabitants of the Kush kingdom

dispersed to outlying regions, including Napata, and Kush entered a lengthy period of decline. It was not until the end of the Egyptian NEW KINGDOM(c. 1570 – c. 1070 BCE) and the beginning of the Twenty-first Dynasty at Tanis (c. 1070 – 69) that Nubia regained independence and reestablished the Kush kingdom at Napata.

The Napatan Period (900 –300 BCE) For more

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