FRUTAS Y HORTALIZAS
FV FRUTAS Y HORTALIZAS
marriage arrangement and share husband and household
with other wives. In this type of arrangement, known as POLYGAMY, the oldest or senior wife usually acts as the dominant authority figure. Newly married or lesser wives are expected to defer to her age and experience. Often the senior wife is consulted in the selection of junior wives. It is important that the wives get along so that there is har- mony in the FAMILY, since a common cause for divorce is that the wives do not get along.
The origin of this practice, widespread in much of ancient Africa, is not known. According to some theories, it may have been handed down by rulers who retained hundreds of wives for political power. It has been specu- lated that having more than one wife was practical and beneficial to the community. Since more girls than boys are born, there might otherwise be girls who could not find husbands, and this would be seen as a waste of human reproductive resources. Therefore, wealthy men in a community took more than one wife so that all women could marry. Other sources indicate that the prac- tice may have evolved from religious beliefs.
See also:WOMEN IN ANCIENT AFRICA(Vol. I).
Further reading:Iris Berger and E. Frances White, eds., Women in Sub-Saharan Africa (Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 1999); Catherine Coquery- Vidrovitch, African Woman: A Modern History (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1997).
Liberia
Independent republic on the Atlantic coast of West Africa that measures about 38,300 square miles (99,200 sq km) and is bordered by the present-day coun- tries of SIERRA LEONE, IVORY COAST, and the Republic of GUINEA. Although Liberia was the only black state in Africa to avoid European colonial rule, from an African perspective, the creation of Liberia was very much a case of colonial conquest.The land that became Liberia faces the Atlantic Ocean, with a shoreline covered in mangrove swamps. Behind the coast, however, lies forested land—both RAIN FOREST(part of a belt of tropical rain forests ranging from present-day Sierra Leone to CAMEROON) as well as forests with secondary growth. Prior to the founding of Liberia, the secondary growth forests were created by the timber exploitation of peoples living in the interior who used wood for cooking.
Farther inland, in what is called the hinterland, a grassland plateau stretches to the hills of the Nimba Mountain range. Liberia’s tropical environment is ideal for the insects that are the vector species of diseases such as malaria, sleeping sickness, and yellow fever.
See also: LIBERIA(Vols. II, III, IV, V); MALARIA(Vol. V).
Further reading: G. E. Saigbe Boley, Liberia: Rise and
Fall of the First Republic (New York: McMillan, 1983); D.
Elwood Dunn and Svend E. Holsoe, Historical Dictionary of
152 Libya
Libya
North African country, approximately 680,000 square miles (1,761,200 sq km) in size, situated on the Mediterranean coast. Libya has a dry and often extreme desert interior and is bordered by TUNISIA, ALGERIA, NIGER, CHAD, the Republic of the SUDAN, and EGYPT.Libya has a rich history dating back to the eighth mil- lennium BCE; part of the SAHARA DESERTis located in Libya. Ancient farmers of the NEOLITHIC AGElikely occupied the plains of the northern coast from as early as 8000 BCE. Growing crops and raising CATTLE, this society was ad- vanced in AGRICULTURE, More than 5,000 years ago the area that is present-day Libya was a great savanna, or grassy plain. But, except for a narrow strip of land along the Mediterranean coast, most of this area is now part of the Sa- hara desert. Nomadic people, called savanna people, hunted wild game and wandered the great plain with their herds. Some time after 2000 BCEthe nomadic society began to fall apart as the desert advanced and other, horse-riding peoples began invading the area. Some of the savanna people moved south into the Sudan, while others became accultur- ated into the society of the indigenous BERBERS.
The Berber migration into LIBYA was recorded in in- scriptions in EGYPT (c. 2700 to c. 2200 BCE). These in- scriptions also comprise the first recorded history of Libya. Though the origin of the Berbers is not known, the remains of their culture and language support the idea that they may have come from southwestern Asia. They
probably moved into North Africa sometime in the third millennium BCE, and over the next few centuries they mi- grated from Egypt all the way to the basin of the NIGER RIVER. Egyptians referred to the Berbers as the Levu, or Libyans. The Twenty-second and Twenty-third Dynasties of Egypt, often called the Libyan dynasties, are thought to have been Berbers.
The GARAMANTES, who are the probable ancestors of today’s TUAREGS, colonized the FEZZANarea circa 1000 BCE. From their capital at Germa, the Garamantes controlled several oases in the Wadi Ajal area. They also controlled much of the trade in the area, having been hired by the Carthaginians to carry GOLDand ivory on the trade route between the western sudanic region and the Mediter- ranean coast. It was at this time, too, that Libyans began to deal with Africans living south of the Sahara desert.
Known for their skill in breeding HORSES, the Garamantes also kept herds of longhorn cattle. They were able to cultivate part of their hot, dry land by developing an irrigation system that used foggares, a series of con- necting underground tunnels that carried water.
Significant remnants of the Garamantes’ culture and civilization have been discovered and examined, including more than 50,000 pyramid-like tombs and several cities built of stone, including Germa, the capital; Zinchera; and Saniat Gebril. Researchers also have found Garamante in- scriptions in the ancient Berber writing called tifinagh,
lineage 153 which is still used by the Tuareg today. The power of the
Garamantes was threatened by ROME, which launched sev- eral attacks against them. The Garamantes eventually al- lied with Rome sometime in the first century CE.
In the seventh century BCEGreeks moved into Cyre- naica on the Mediterranean coast of northeastern Libya and established CYRENE, which became known as a city of great ARTand SCIENCE. It was to Rome, however, that Libya was most important, since it was situated just across the MEDITERRANEAN SEA from Italy (see map p. 151). Rome’s first conquest was the northwestern region of Libya on the Mediterranean coast. Later called Tripolitania, this region became known for exporting olive oil as well as for the gold trade and the slave trade. In 74 BCECyrenaica came under the control of the Romans. This region was known for its wine and horses. Although the Romans ventured into the Fezzan and brought it under their control, they were mainly interested in the regions of Africa from which they had something to gain economically. They also sought regions in which local people could be used to defend the area from hostile forces.
Near the end of the first century CE Romans finally secured the route between Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, and for more than 200 years they protected the trade routes between them. With trade and communication guaranteed by Rome, Tripolitania and Cyrenaica gener- ally thrived until circa 400. During this time, they used the same language and legal system as the Romans.
Evidence of Roman influence in Libya, as in virtually every part of the Roman Empire, included baths, forums, markets, and other familiar institutions of Roman urban life. Roman ruins discovered in Libya also show how much the area prospered under Roman rule. Scholars be- lieve that the rich tradition of art and MUSICthat exists today in Libya is due in part to the influence of the Romans, who decorated temples and homes with such ornamentation as beautifully crafted mosaics.
Around 70 CE, after the Romans put down the Jewish revolt in Palestine and conquered the area, significant numbers of Jews made their way to Cyrenaica, where many Jews already resided. Then, in 115, Jews in Cyre- naica led another revolt against the Romans that was stopped within three years. Scholars now believe that perhaps more than 200,000 people were killed during that time.
The term Libya was first used as a name for the province by Emperor DIOCLETIANabout 300 CE, when he separated the area of Cyrenaica into Upper Libya and Lower Libya. When the Roman Empire was divided in 395, Libya was governed by the Eastern Empire, which ruled from Constantinople.
The VANDALS, a Germanic warrior people, entered North Africa from Spain and seized power in the regions of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica in about 429 and attacked the city of Rome in about 455. After 100 years of rule in
Africa, however, they became less interested in making war and were conquered by Byzantines (c. 533) on behalf of the Roman Empire.
See also: BYZANTINE AFRICA (Vols. 1, II); CARTHAGE (Vol. I); IVORY (Vol. II); LIBYA (Vols. II, III, IV, V); SLAVERY (Vols. I, III, IV).
Limpopo River
River of southern Africa that mea- sures approximately 1,100 miles (1,770 km) in length and empties into the Indian Ocean. Despite its length, the river is only navigable near its mouth. With its source near Witswatersrand, in present-day SOUTH AFRICA, the river meanders from South Africa to its mouth in present- day MOZAMBIQUE. The Limpopo River marks the border between South Africa and present-day ZIMBABWE and BOTSWANA.The Limpopo’s main tributary is the Olifants River, which flows into the Limpopo about 130 miles (209 km) from its mouth, just north of present-day Maputo, in Mozambique. The upper portion of the river is known as the Crocodile (Krokodil) River. The lower portion irri- gates Mozambique’s fertile agricultural region. The word
limpopo may come from the Sotho word meaning “river
of the waterfall.”
Before the fifth century the fertile valley between the Limpopo and the Zambezi rivers was populated by the Khoikhoi, and later it became home to many other groups. In addition to providing the right environment for PASTORALISMand AGRICULTURE, the region was rich in mineral wealth such as GOLD.
lineage
Basic distinction used in social grouping of most African societies. Lineage is a descent group deter- mined through either patrilineal or matrilineal ancestry. The founder of a particular lineage is usually the child or grandchild of the founder of that lineage’s CLAN. Though lineages serve as bridges between various segments of a clan, they, unlike clans, are smaller in the number of liv- ing members and the number of generations. A lineage represents a single body of members, but the members do not necessarily all share a common name. A lineage may hold property jointly, but a single leader often exercises authority over the members and serves as its representa- tive. Lineages can be traced back for many generations, and, since lineages generally are considered permanent groups, the inclusion of different generations creates a more stable social structure. African lineages also func- tion as basic political units if centralized authority—in the figure of a king or chief— does not exist.According to a typical social model, various lineages live together as autonomous groups that make up a soci- ety. This type of lineage system, sometimes referred to as a “segmentary social order,” is common throughout Africa.
It is particularly prevalent among pastoral peoples, who often lack a form of centralized political authority or gov- ernment. The balance of power among these segmented social groups is usually determined through warfare, with the decision to engage in armed conflict usually made by a member of the group who is believed to possess ritual, or even mystical, authority.
lions
The power and grandeur of the lion has long been admired on the African continent. One of its earli- est appearances in mythology occurs with the sphinx. According to Egyptian legend, sphinxes had the bodies of lions and the heads of humans. Lions were also associ- ated with Sakmet, the Egyptian goddess of war and vengeance, and Mahes, the Egyptian personification of the summer heat.JJJJJJJJJJJJJ
In GHANA, a popular folktale involved a lion and a clever rabbit. The rabbit overheard the lion saying he would eat him. But instead of running away, the clever rabbit went to the lion’s cave and told him of another, more powerful lion. The rabbit led the lion to the lake and pointed to the water, and when the lion attacked his own reflection, he drowned, leaving the rabbit in peace.
JJJJJJJJJJJJJ
Lions are social animals that live in prides with up to thirty members. They usually hunt ZEBRAS, wildebeest,
and antelopes. Lions claim their territory by scent-mark- ing and roaring.
Lisht, pyramid of
Along with the pyramid of LAHUNand the pyramid ofHAWARA, part of the mortuary complex
for kings of the Twelfth Dynasty of EGYPT. Lisht, also called al-Lisht, is the site of two notable pyramids that were built by Amenemhet I (r. c. 1938–c. 1908 BCE, also known as
Amonhemet I), the founder of the Twelfth Dynasty.
During his reign Amenemhet I moved the capital of Egypt from Thebes to Lisht, where he built his pyramid from mud brick that was then covered with stone. Unfortunately, the pyramid did not survive the ages well and is in ruins. Though Amenemhet I was the first ruler of the MIDDLE KINGDOM period, the style of his pyramid
resembled older pyramids.
Sesostris II (also called Senwosre II), the son of Amenemhet I, was the second king of the Twelfth Dynasty and ruled for 10 years with his father. Sesostris II built his pyramid next to his father’s. The first layer of his pyramid was made of sand compartments covered with limestone.
Meri, the governor in charge of the construction of the pyramid, is remembered by a stele inscribed with a record of his accomplishments, which can be seen today in the Louvre Museum in Paris.
locusts
Locusts have been considered threats to agricul- tural crops since ancient times. The desert locust, which is found in EGYPT and other arid parts of Africa, probablyformed the plagues that were described in ancient Egyp- tian records. In the book of Exodus, the Bible also men- tions a swarm of locusts as the eighth plague that God inflicted on Egypt.
Logone River
Main tributary of the CHARI(Shar) RIVER,which empties into Lake CHAD. The river is 240 miles (386
km) long and is fed by the Mbere River and its tributary, the Vina, of present-day CAMEROON, and by the Pende. of
present-day CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC. During the rainy
season the river becomes linked to the BENUERiver system
through the swamps of Lake Fiango and Tikem, and the Mayo Kébi River in Cameroon. The regular loss of water to the Benue system is detrimental to the dry region of the Lake Chad basin. Extensive PAPYRUSswamps line much of
the river’s course.
See also:LAKES AND RIVERS(Vol. I).
Lower Egypt
Delta land of the NILE RIVER; along with UPPER EGYPT, one of the two kingdoms of ancient EGYPT.The annual flooding of the Nile, which overflows its banks and deposits mineral-rich silt over 15,000 square miles (38,850 sq km) of land, turned this one-time swamp into the fertile soil that the Egyptians called KEMET, or the
“black land.”
The Nile River flows northward, and the distinction between the “upper” and “lower” Nile follows that flow. Thus, Lower Egypt refers to northern Egypt, where the river empties into the MEDITERRANEAN SEA. In ancient
times, Lower Egypt stretched from just south of present- day CAIROnorthward to the city of ALEXANDRIA, located at
the NILE DELTA.
Lower Egypt was symbolized by a RED CROWN and
had a bee as its emblem. The chief god of Lower Egypt was HORUS, the son of OSIRISand ISIS. In Egyptian mythol-
ogy, Horus eventually avenged the murder of his father at the hands of his uncle, SETH, who was the god of Upper
Egypt.
Prior to unification with Upper Egypt, about 3050
BCE, Lower Egypt consisted of a great number of indepen-
dent and autonomous Delta towns. Each one functioned as a trade center, a political center, and a center of cult worship. These towns eventually unified into the king- dom of Lower Egypt.
According to Egyptian legend, MENES (r. c. 2925– c. 2863 BCE) was the founder of the First Dynasty of Egyptian kings and the first king of a unified Upper and Lower Egypt. This unification resulted from Upper Egypt’s victory in war in about 3050 BCE. The unification of the two kingdoms not only centralized authority but also facilitated massive administrative, building, and irri- gation projects. Widespread FOOD distribution and the regulation of trade also were undertaken, leading to a rapid multiplication of Egypt’s wealth.
See also:BADARIAN CULTURE(Vol. I), NAQADAH I AND II(Vol. I); NARMER PALLETTE(Vol. I).
Lualaba River
Largest tributary of the CONGO RIVER, flowing over approximately 1,100 miles (1,770 km) and draining the CONGO BASINwhile staying completely within the present-day Republic of the CONGO. Considered to be the upper Congo River, the Lualaba River rises in south- eastern Republic of the Congo and flows north over rapids and falls to Bukama, where it crosses a large savanna and then pools in a series of marshy lakes. Another tributary, the Luvua River, meets the Lualaba at Ankoro, carrying water from Lake Mweru on the border with present-day ZAMBIA. A third tributary, the Lukuga, flows out of Lake TANGANYIKAand joins the Lualaba as it continues its flow north to Kisangani. From Kasongo to Kibombo the Lua- laba River is navigable, but it then descends through a se- ries of waterfalls to become the beginning of the Congo River, the second longest river on the continent and one of the longest rivers in the world.Archaeological discoveries indicate that several IRON AGEgroups had settled along the banks of the Lualaba to- ward the end of the first millennium. Excavation sites at Katoto and Sanga produced evidence of technologically sophisticated cultures that were involved in trade and small-scale mining.
See also:SANGA(Vol. II).
Lucy (Dinkenesh)
Nickname for the earliest Aus-tralopithecine skeleton found in Africa. See also:HADAR(Vol. 1).
luntiu-setiu
Highly skilled archers of ancient KUSH (NUBIA), who played a prominent role in the military suc- cess of the kingdom. In ancient times, the Kingdom of Kush was widely known as Ta-Seti (Land of the Bow) in tribute to these highly trained soldiers who were even more famous for their mastery of the art of the bow and arrow than for their use of swords and javelins. The well-earned reputation of these soldiers was recognized by the ancient Greeks and Romans, as well as by the Arabs, whom they defeated in battle at Dongola (c. 652).
See also: WARFARE AND WEAPONS(Vols. I, II, III, IV, V).