Ejercicios aplicados en la enseñanza instrumental

The brain is an extremely complex and comprehensive part of the human body (Morrison, 2011: p173; Music, 2011: p85). Brain cells are formed within the first three weeks after conception; and they play an indispensable role in the development of the child, with between 100 and 200 billion neurons or nerve cells to be developed (De Witt. 2009: p78-79). According to Brierley (1994: p5), the brain has full control over the body and its functions. The brain is made up of many parts, all of which play a different, yet vital, role in the day-to- day functioning of a human being (Brierley, 1994: p6).

The brain is encased in a bony structure called the skull, which is incredibly resilient and flexible during the first year of a child‟s life. According to Levey et al. (2011: p106-107), the brain consists of two halves, namely: the right brain and the left brain, which communicate continually with one another. The right brain is concerned predominantly with „processing emotional nuances and visuo-spatial tasks’ (Levey et al., 2011: p107). These are tasks, which utilize visual perception and spatial relationships. The left side of the brain is concerned with language and verbal reasoning, according to Levey et al. (2011: p107).

Pre-natal brain development is an important process. According to Johnson (2011: p48), about five weeks after conception, three key elements of the child‟s brain become evident, the

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first being the cortex, the second being the thalamus and the hypothalamus, and the third is the midbrain, cerebellum and medulla. Within these three regions, the brain cells begin to ‘proliferate (are born), migrate (travel) and differentiate (change form) into particular types (Johnson, 2011: p48).

According to Johnson, (2011: p47), ‘prior to birth, neurons are generated in the developing brain at a rate of more than 250,000 per minute.’ The formation of neurons within parts of the brain is an incredibly intricate and sensitive process (Johnson, 2011: p49). Figure 2.2 is a clear representation of the embryonic and foetal development of the human brain, representing the forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain (Johnson, 2011: p48).

Figure 2.2 Embryonic and foetal development of the human brain Johnson, 2011: p47

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The amount of brain growth that takes place after birth has an immense impact on children‟s ability level (Johnson, 2011: p49). Every sight, sound, touch, smell and thought leaves an imprint on specific neuronal circuits and pathways, altering and transforming the way future sights, sounds, smells and thoughts will be registered. According to Eliot (1999: p4), „Brain hardware is not fixed, but living, dynamic tissue that is constantly updating itself to meet the sensory, motor, emotional, and cognitive demands at hand’.

Figure 2.3 is a clear representation of some of the important parts of the brain.

Figure 2.3 Some of the key areas of the brain (Music, 2011: p85)

The child becomes aware of its environment and surroundings by means of the most complicated system in its body: the nervous system. The child‟s senses and muscles create awareness and allow it to adjust to its milieu (De Witt. 2009: p77). Brain growth and development are incredibly integral and fastidious processes, whereby „neurons grow new axons, sprout new dendrites, form new synapses, and modify the strength of some established

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connections, while eliminating others selectively over time. The impacts of varied experiences are also reflected in observed differences in the brain’s blood supply, its cellular (glial) support systems, its intercellular insulation (myelin), the neurochemicals that it produces, and the specific receptors that recognise each individual substance (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000: p23).

Neurons have a very specific function: they ‘make connections with other neurons through synapses (connections) and transmit information in two directions: (a) From the brain to the body; and (b) from structures and organs in the body back to the brain’ (Levey et al., 2011: p105). The function of neurons is to enable the brain to ‘process information and store memories, experiences, information and learning’ (Levey et al., 2011: p106).

Figure 2.4 is a representation of what a neuron may look like, consisting of the dendrites, nucleus, cell body and axon.

Figure 2.4 A neuron

(Music, 2011: p86)

According to Shonkoff and Phillips (2000, in Leseman, 2002: p8), there is much neuro- scientific evidence, which has identified the importance of the social and cultural environment, and attempted to create an awareness by protecting children against stressful experiences, which could harm potentially healthy brain development in the emotional

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domain. Not only does this impact on children‟s emotional development, but it also has a positive influence on their cognitive and social-cognitive domains (Leseman, 2002: p8). Much of the early emotional learning that takes place in the first year or so of a child‟s life is procedural learning.

According to Music (2011: p84), Freud‟s view that a great deal of mental processing occurs in a non-conscious way has been confirmed through neuroscience. We now understand that initial learning that takes place requires a great deal of effort and concentration, but as a skill develops and understanding is prevalent, less conscious thought is needed (Music, 2011: p84).

Additionally, Subiaul (in 2010: p270) states that studies have confirmed that observational learning has independent neurobiological circuits. Subiaul (2010: p270) goes on to explain the two key differences between observational learning and novel imitation: observational learning requires only learning, not copying, so learning takes place through observation. Novel imitation requires observational learning and copying, so an involvement in the learning process is evident here.

There were a number of very influential pioneers in child development. Gesell (1925, 1929) believed that genetics plays a major role in determining children‟s potential and expected outcomes; while others, such as Watson (1928), believed that the child‟s environment is a determining factor (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000: p23). Over time it became increasingly clear that neither of these theories was the formula for understanding children‟s development, when seen in isolation; but rather than when integrated, a deeper understanding of the complex human nature was required.

It is now understood that nature and nurture both exert an influential role in determining the child‟s development and growth (Morrison, 2011: p172; McDevitt 2013: p4-5). According to Shonkoff et al. (2000: p24), „The influence of nature is deeply affected by these environments and, in turn, shapes how children respond to their experiences’.

According to Eliot (1999: p439), past research has shown that on average 40 per cent of people‟s memory skills can be attributed to their genetic formation; 60 per cent of a child‟s memory ability and skills is shaped by experience. Memory improves with practice and through repetition, especially with deliberate efforts to acquire and retain new information.

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According to Walque (2011: 85), ‘developmental experiences determine the organizational and functional status of the mature brain’.

While genetics plays a major role in the sequence of neural development, the quality and eminence of development is formed by environmental factors (Eliot, 1999: p9). The primary role of the nervous system is to „control, integrate and co-ordinate‟ the responses to stimuli, which enhance the child‟s ability to acquire learning and language (Hendrick & Weissman, 2007: p10-11; De Witt. 2009: p78).

The role of culture in rearing children is fundamental; and it includes elements, such as „values, aspirations, expectations, and practices’ (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000: p25). Understanding the value of the environment in children‟s growth and progress is fundamental in determining how brain growth and culture share a joint influence on the process of development.

Gordon and Browne (2008: p460) believe that, ‘During the first three years of life, an infant’s brain creates an estimated 1000 billion synapses – providing thereby quality experiences and relationships, which will create lasting effects on how the brain gets wired… Indications are strong that children’s brains need to be stimulated for the network of connections to grow, and be protected from being discarded.’

The fact that during the early stages of a child‟s life there is such a vast growth in the synapses, which affect the development and advancement of the brain, makes it clear that young children need to be invested in, so as to protect and enhance the synapses.

According to Eliot (1999: p29), brain-wiring and development evolve and advance in an intricate relationship between nature and nurture. Gonzalez-Mena states that the updated brain research shows very clearly that optimal development of the brain and the cognition of the child depend largely on occurrences prior to the child‟s birth (2011: p31). Morrison (2011: p173) endorses that high-quality experiences and interactions are necessary, and contribute to children‟s educational ability and developmental level.

Gordon & Brown. (2008: p460) state that: „Indicators are strong that children’s brains need to be stimulated for the network of connections to grow and be protected from being discarded’. It is clear that dendrites and synapses are being formed rapidly during a child‟s early years (Eliot, 1999: p28).

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According to Levey et al., (2011: p104), „an important executive function of the brain is self- regulation’. This is the child‟s ability to „guide, monitor and direct his or her performance in a task’ (Levey et al., 2011: p104). This ability enables children to develop an understanding of their competencies, challenges, problem-solving strategies, outcomes and goals, as well as their ability to monitor their own achievements and implement self-evaluation (Zimmerman (1989, in Levey et al. 2011: p104).

Figure 2.5 Representation of cellular growth in the cerebral cortex during the first two years of a child‟s life (Eliot, 1999: p29)