El artículo 14 de las Reglas de procedimiento

Discourse has been described as a ‘corpus’ or ‘system’ of statements which construct an object (Arribas-Ayllon & Walkerdine, 2008; Parker, 1992). In a feminist Foucaultian discourse analysis this refers to any form of talk or text as well as any set of rules, knowledge or social practices which define that which is possible and (re)produce social meaning. Discourse authorises what can be said, by whom, where and when, meaning it both constrains and enables certain talk, writings, practises or understandings (Willig, 2008). Through these regulatory effects, discourses exert power and thus (re)create the meanings and practices they construct (Burr, 2003; Henriques, Hollway, Urwin, Venn, & Walkerdine, 1984). Not only does discourse set gendered conditions of possibility but it also constructs gendered conditions of being (Gavey, 2011); individual’s take up subject positions made available by discourses which determine their

experience/subjectivities (Willig, 2008). Subject positions locate the self morally, inform certain talk and actions and offer a place from which to view the world (Davies & Harré, 1990; Willig, 2000). Foucault (1972) argues that subject positions are

determined in relation to the construction of other objects, therefore feminist approaches view feminine and masculine positions as tightly entwined. Van Langenhove and Harré (1999) describe positioning as comprised of a triad: a script that is acted out, positions (each part being performed) and actions (the meaning of which is established by the other two parts of the triad).

Discourse and meaning concerning gendered social power relations is embedded within our sociocultural history and therefore characterised by change, ruptures and

discontinuities as it is constantly constructed and reproduced (Gavey, 1989). Multiple discourses also exist, which may change and be called upon at different times and in different situations, accounting for the inconsistencies and contradictions present in people’s talk and actions. However, these discourses vary in their authority, with some more powerful than others (Gavey, 2005; Holland et al., 1998). Foucault (1972) argues that much of what is understood, spoken or practiced is therefore product of discursive ‘re-circulation’. Dominant discourses, such as a discourse of science, are those that have based themselves on the natural, scientific or common sense (Hook, 2001). These discourses are most available and relied on as we view them as unquestionable, natural

68 or ‘true’ as opposed to ‘constructed’ (Gavey, 2011). It follows that knowledge is socially constructed and tightly entwined with power, since dominant discourses inform these ‘truths’ (Willig, 2008). A circle of reinforcement is present in those in power (e.g. scientists and biomedical institutions) regulate what counts as truth through dominant discourses (e.g. a discourse of science and biology) that maintain their position of power by justifying access to material advantages and reproducing their ‘expert’ position (Gavey, 1989; Willig, 2008). Power, therefore, is not explicitly enforced but reproduced through us, as we draw on dominant discourses (disguised as truth,

knowledge and rationality) to inform our sense-making and practices (Arribas-Ayllon & Walkerdine, 2008). Although counter-discourses and repositioning may exist, which allow for points of resistance and change, they remain less available within social power relations. As Hook (2001) and Gavey (2011) state, discourses both enable and limit both empowered and disempowered subject positions, meaning we are both more and less free then we think.

A feminist discursive methodology locates language as embedded within discourse and laden with assumptions about and investments in gendered power relations (Potts, 2000). Viewing language as constructive, it cannot exist independently of one’s experience and multiple, contradictory social realities may compete for meaning. It follows that no single truth exists, meaning complexity and contradiction is accepted as part of a world with multiple and flexible meanings as knowledge and truth is

continually socially, historically, politically and culturally constructed (Gavey, 1989). A feminist Foucaultian discourse analysis therefore aims to examine the goal or function of language and discourse over seeking objective truth or meaning (Gavey, 1989).

A feminist discourse analysis involves three dimensions, put forward by Arribas-Ayllon and Walkerdine (2008): historical inquiry, examination of power mechanisms and functions, and exploration of subjectivities. This form of analysis focuses on both the detail of language as well as acknowledging the wider sociocultural context and history (Gavey, 1989). Emphasis lies in examining power-knowledge structures and how these processes affect individual and interpersonal experiences (McNay, 1992; Parker, 1992; Wetherell, 1998). Since a feminist discourse analysis does not constrain or limit individual responses and acknowledges the complex interplay between discourse,

69 knowledge and gendered power relations, I chose to use this analysis for my research. Sexual encounters and relationships are important sites for power differentials to be acted out and reproduced, and desire can be both a producer and product of these power relations. I therefore aim to identify the discourses women and sex therapists draw on when talking about desire, how they position themselves, other women and sexual partners, how gendered power differentials are reproduced and also any points of resistance or repositioning that may be present. In examining women’s desire and its relation to heteronormative scripts and subject positions it is not my intention to compare differing sexual identities nor classify any sexual identity outside of heterosexual as ‘other’.

Method

This project is comprised of three discrete but interrelated studies that involve semi- structured interviews with young women (Study One), women seeking sex therapy (Study Two) and sex therapists (Study Three).

Safety issues

The current project was reviewed and approved by the Massey University Human Ethics Committee. Safety issues I considered for this research were both personal and participant safety, in particular the potential disclosure of current or past sexual abuse/harm. I addressed these concerns by informing my primary supervisor of the dates, times and locations of each interview. I also notified supervisors via text message when I would be beginning and ending each interview and remained contactable by cell phone at all times. In terms of participant safety, I have ensured confidentiality and respect for privacy through the use of pseudonyms, password

protection of transcripts and omission of identifying information. Although the focus of this research is not on negative experiences, I was aware that negative or distressing experiences may be shared and therefore the participants were fully informed of the purpose of the research and were assured (both in my information sheets and during the beginning of each interview) that if any negative disclosures did occur, I would help them seek appropriate support available in the community if needed. To avoid further ethical issues, the information sheet for Study Two (women seeking sex therapy) was available through the Sex Therapy New Zealand (STNZ) website, meaning women who

70 were interested in participating contacted me directly rather than through a therapist they might be seeing.

Participants

Study One included young women between the ages of 21 and 25. The participants consisted of nine New Zealand-European women, one of whom had spent her childhood and some of her adolescent years in England. Six of the women had full-time jobs within the community (five of whom had completed tertiary education), one was a full- time student and two worked for the New Zealand Defence Force. While sexual orientation was not a criterion for participation, all of the women identified as heterosexual.

Study Two included women of any age who were currently seeking sex therapy. Although a number of women made contact expressing interest in the study, only two women chose to participate. One of these women indicated she had not yet engaged with sex therapy, however she was actively contemplating whether it would be a helpful. While she had not yet engaged in sex therapy, she had engaged briefly with a counsellor and psychologist in the past (though this was not related to sexual issues). The second woman had been engaged in sex therapy for an estimated time of 18 months.

Study Three included sex therapists currently working in the field. These therapists could be of any gender and qualification, the only criterion being that they were currently working as a sex therapist. Due to recruitment methods, all of the therapists had completed training with the Sex Therapy New Zealand (STNZ). STNZ is a specialised organisation in New Zealand for those seeking help with intimacy and sexuality concerns. First founded by clinical psychologist Robyn Salisbury and later restructured, with four of the existing team members becoming shareholding directors, the organisation is made up of therapists from a range of disciplines; however, all have completed specialised training through the organisation. The participants consisted of one man and four women, who had a variety of training backgrounds (including a registered psychologist, a psychotherapist, a counsellor and two clinical psychologists). Their years of experience ranged between eight and 27 years, and experience specific to sex therapy, ranging between six and 20 years.

71 Recruitment

Participants for Study One were recruited through snowball sampling. This technique results in purposeful sampling and is used widely in qualitative research within the social sciences (Polkinghorne, 2005). Snowball sampling allows researchers to reach an increasing number of participants through contact with an initial participant.

Recruitment involved notifying friends and family of my research as well as its nature and purpose, and requesting that they pass this information on, along with information sheets (see Appendix A), to anyone they knew who may be interested in participating. The participants in this study were therefore those who volunteered by contacting me directly due to interest in the study.

Participants for Study Two were recruited through an information sheet, which was accessible through a link on the Sex Therapy New Zealand website (see Appendix A). The participants in this study contacted me directly if they were interested in

volunteering to be a part of this study.

Lastly, participants for Study Three were recruited through already established contacts within the Sex Therapy New Zealand organisation, which included the circulation of an information sheet to other sex therapists via email (see Appendix A). Anyone interested in volunteering for the study also contacted me directly.

Interviews

I chose to conduct single one-on-one interviews as this ensured confidentiality and safe disclosure of information. These interviews occurred face-to face, which allowed me to establish rapport with each participant and offered a safe place in which they could share detailed accounts, stories or viewpoints. It also ensured that if any distressing information was shared, I was able to work collaboratively with the participant in directing them to appropriate services. Interviews ranged from one to two hours and took place where the participant felt was comfortable and private. The time and place of each interview was negotiated with participants and involved me travelling to locations throughout the North Island.

Each interview was semi-structured in that a list of potential questions and topics were used as starting points/prompters to initiate or elicit talk (see Appendix C). However, I

72 endeavoured to keep the interviews flexible and conversational, not only to create a comfortable, trusting and open environment, but also to encourage participants to talk about the experiences or understandings they wished to share. The list of potential questions were available for each interview in the form of a printed sheet. As each study involved a different group of people, this list included both similar sets of questions as well as questions relevant to each group. Most women preferred me to lead the conversation towards the beginning of the interview; however they chose to take their own direction later as rapport was built. Throughout these interviews, I played an active role in conversations to foster rapport and elicit sharing; therefore it is important to acknowledge my own influence in negotiating any issues and experiences raised by these women.

Upon arrival at the interview, I first addressed any questions or concerns regarding the information sheet participants had received. I also reminded each participant that they may refuse to answer any question and may request the recorder be turned off at any point during the interview. Each participant then signed an Informed Consent Form (see Appendix B). I digitally recorded each interview and then transcribed these verbatim, with the inclusion of repetitions and pauses. Dots [. . .] were used to signal a pause or the removal of identifying or irrelevant information. Confidentiality was ensured through the use of pseudonyms and the elimination of identifying information on all transcribed material as well as the deletion of audio recordings after I had transcribed them. Audio recordings, signed forms and transcriptions were kept

confidential at all times; they were password protected and locked in folders and secure places that only I had access to.

Once interviews were transcribed, each transcript was delivered to participants, via email, post or hand delivery (as requested by each participant), for personal review. Each participant was given the opportunity to read the transcript, make any changes they wished to make, and discuss any issues further with me. For cases in which negative or distressing information was shared, I remained present during transcript review and discussed appropriate support services available if needed. A Release of Transcript Form (see Appendix D), was also sent/given to each participant, along with a stamped addressed envelope, so this form and final transcripts could be returned.

73 Transcription

As I transcribed interviews I kept notes on discourses, scripts or positions that emerged within the transcripts. For example, in Study One a discourse of experimentation was evident in the young women’s talk, as informed by neoliberal norms (such as self- improvement) and an ‘always up for it’ sexual position that constructed engaging in experimental sex as a symbol of one’s sexual empowerment or agency. I also noted any points of contradiction, conflict or resistance. For example, in Study Three the sex therapists disrupted a dominant biological approach to sex but relied on a discourse of intimacy and pleasure.

Once I had gained familiarity with each transcript through careful reading, I began systematically reading each interview, keeping notes and compiling my thoughts and reflections. I reflected on the socio-political context in which these participants lived, including the functions of specific discourses and subject positions. I also reflected on my own location, as a young woman (22-24 years of age during interviews) and as a researcher completing a Doctorate of Clinical Psychology at Massey University. I have a strong interest in issues for women, particularly involving their sexual experiences, which is reflected in my current and previous (Honours) research. I was born in Bristol, England where I spent my childhood and some of my adolescent years before

immigrating to New Zealand at age 13. My final high school years were completed in Rotorua, New Zealand before I moved to Palmerston North for tertiary studies and where I continue to reside. Given this context, I identify as both English and New Zealand-European.

Method of Analysis

Willig (2008) sets out six stages that provides a framework for conducting a Foucaultian discourse analysis: (1) discursive constructions, (2) discourses, (3) action orientation, (4) positionings, (5) practice and (6) subjectivity. Discursive constructions must first be identified by examining the shared meanings present (i.e. the sexual script). For

example, this may reveal the prioritisation of men’s desires and pleasures during sexual encounters. Secondly, differences in constructions must be identified and each

construction placed within wider discourses (e.g. the specific discourses that inform the sexual script). Multiple discourses may uphold the prioritisation of men’s desires and

74 pleasure including the male sex drive and have/hold discourse. Thirdly, the influence of these discourses must be examined (i.e. what these constructions are achieving and how they function alongside other discourses). For example, the male sex drive discourse constructs men’s sex drives as natural and uncontrollable while the have/hold discourse constructs women’s sexualities inside responding to men and their active drives, interacting with other discourses such as the coital imperative. Constructing an active- passive binary between men and women, dominant discourses reproduce unequal gender relations, including the prioritisation of men’s desires and pleasures and silencing of women’s. Next, subject positions available and accessible are identified (those taken up or placed on individuals and others). The male sex drive and have/hold discourse create active sexual positions for men, while restricting women within passive gate-keeping positions in which they must negotiate the positions of the ‘virgin’/’angel’ and the ‘whore’. After this, the implications of these constructions and subject positions are examined (i.e. what is enabled and constrained). For example, women’s talk around their sexual encounters may reflect obligation, a lack of choice and missing expressions of their own desires and expectations of pleasure. Lastly, individual experience that results from the taking up of certain subject positions are examined (i.e. one’s thoughts and feelings). For example, women may feel disappointed or used following sexual encounters. This analysis also identifies resistance to dominant discourses as well as any contradictions or tensions in the participants’ talk. For example, women may draw on a discourse of reciprocity to assert their right to sexual pleasure during an encounter. The following three chapters present my findings from interviews with young women (Chapter 5), women seeking sex therapy (Chapter 6) and sex therapists (Chapter 7). All of the analysis chapters address how participants both resisted and reproduced a

heteronormative sexual script; however each group of participants differed through the subject positions available to them, with these subject positions either constraining or enabling certain subjectivities.

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Chapter 5

Searching for Voices: Young Women