Even boundedly rational observers can try hard to attend to those signals that offer high return to attention. This section generalizes the basic single-arena model of Section 3 to allow individuals to decideex antehow much attention to allocate to either disclosed information or the strategic implications of non-disclosure. We first examine whether the qualitative and comparative statics implications the the basic model survive in a setting with endogenous allocation of attention. We then examine how the technology for allocating attention affects comparative statics. Specifically, we examine how the de- gree of complementarity or substitutability between attention to disclosed signals versus attention to non-disclosure affects individuals’ decisions.
The focus of the analysis here is on the first arenaA, but we include a second arenaB
to give individuals an opportunity cost of attending to arenaA. Individuals ex ante also have a choice within arenaAas to how much attention to devote to disclosed information versus the failure of information to be disclosed.
There are two stages in the model. In the first stage identical observers choose attention probabilities αW
A, αDA, as defined earlier, and the probability of attending to a
second independent arena B, αB. This choice is not observable to the informed player,
although in equilibrium he knows what the choice will be.
In the second stage, attention outcomes are realized, so each observer either attends or does not attend to each arena and forms beliefs accordingly. The informed player observes his private signal about arena A, and decides whether or not to disclose. At this point, the decision problem of the informed player is identical to that of the informed player in the basic model. So the disclosure threshold θ∗
A is determined as in the basic
model as a function of αW
A and αAD.
Also at the second stage, each observer makes a project choice based on his beliefs at that time. Thus, at the first stage the individual allocates attention so as to increase the quality of his later project choice. Let θA be an observer’s net payoff from adopting
he adopts if and only if θA ≥ 0. For algebraic simplicity, we assume that E[θA] = 0,
so that an individual who does not attend to arena A is just willing to undertake the project. Similar results apply more generally.
Also for simplicity, we assume that there is no disclosure game in arena B. Instead, an information signal becomes public spontaneously and with certainty. We therefore assume that the B component of the observers’ payoffs is equal to αBK, where K >0
is a constant.19
From the analysis of the basic model,θ∗
A < E[θA] = 0. When an individual attends
to a disclosure in arenaA, he adopts the project if and only ifθA>0. When he attends
to a failure to disclose, he rejects the project since E[θA|θA < θA∗] < 0. As discussed
above, whenever an individual fails to attend (either to a disclosure or to a failure to disclose), he adopts. Thus, his expected payoff from his arena A project choices given his attention probabilities αD
A and αWA is Π = (1−αDA)P r(θA > θA∗)E[θA|θA> θA∗] + αDAP r(θA>0)E[θA|θA>0] + (1−αWA)P r(θA < θ∗A)E[θA|θA< θA∗] +αWA ·(0) = (1−αDA) Z θA θA∗ θAf(θA)dθA+αDA Z θA 0 θAf(θA)dθA+ (1−αWA) Z θA∗ θA θAf(θA)dθA = Z θA θA∗ θAf(θA)dθA−αDA Z 0 θ∗ A θAf(θA)dθA+ (1−αWA) Z θA∗ θA θAf(θA)dθA (31)
Adding to this the expected profit from the arena B project, an observer’s overall first stage optimization problem is
max αW A,α D A,αB Z θA θA∗ θAf(θA)dθA−αDA Z 0 θ∗ A θAf(θA)dθA+ (1−αWA) Z θA∗ θA θAf(θA)dθA+αBK,
subject to the attention allocation constraint,
G(αWA, αDA, αB)≤1, (32)
where G(·,·,·) is weakly increasing in each of its arguments.
The function G reflects the degree to which the individual is able to substitute attention between different arenas, and between attention toward disclosure in Arena
19
It is easy to endogenize this form by introducing an investment project related to arena B with
net value kθB, where E[θB] = 0 andk > 0. Attending toB allows an observer to obtain on average kE[θB|θB≥0] by investing when doing so is profitable, instead of always investing for an average payoff
of 0. In this setting, arena B contributesαBkE[θB|θB ≥0] to the observer’s expected profits, so that K=kE[θB|θB≥0].
A and attention toward withholding of information in Arena A. For example, If the individual has good control over his attention, the α’s may be highly substitutable. On the other hand, if vividness and salience grab people’s attention without conscious volition, the different α’s may be highly complementary in G, so that it is hard for the individual to shift the proportions between the α’s from some natural ratio.
We consider a tractable functional form for G,
G(αW A, αAD, αB) = sW(σWαW A)p+sD(σDαDA)p + (1−sW −sD)αB −1/p , (33) where p >1 and σW and σD are exogenous parameters which measure the opportunity
cost of directing attention to a particular target (the opportunity cost of directing atten- tion to arena B is normalized to 1). sW andsD correspond to relative factor shares in the
constant elasticity of substitution production function, where sW, sD, and 1−sW −sD
all range from 0 to 1. It can be easily shown that the elasticity of substitution between
αW A and αDA is ∂ln(αW A/αDA) ∂ln(GαW A/Gα D A) = 1 p−1, which is a decreasing function of p.
Proposition 11 If individuals decide how much attention to devote to either disclosed information or the implications of non-disclosure subject to the attention transformation constraint (33), and an interior equilibrium obtains with 0< αW
A < αDA <1, then
1. The amount of disclosure increases with the opportunity cost of attending to dis- closure (dθ∗
A/dσD <0);
2. The amount of disclosure decreases with the opportunity cost of attending to non- disclosure (dθ∗
A/dσW >0);
3. If σWαW < σDαD, then the amount of disclosure decreases with the elasticity
of substitution between αW
A and αDA (dθ∗A/dp < 0). If σWαW > σDαD, then the
amount of disclosure increases with the elasticity of substitution (dθ∗
A/dp >0).
If attention is highly substitutable (pclose to 1) the condition that an interior equilibrium obtain may fail. However, if substitutability is sufficiently limited (p sufficiently large), then an interior equilibrium exists.
The comparative statics when individuals have an allocation choice (Proposition 11 Parts 1 and 2) are similar to those with exogenous α’s, as described in Section 4.2,
Proposition 2. Since an increase in σD increases the opportunity cost of attending to
disclosure, it causes less attention to disclosure, and a lower threshold (more disclosure). An increase in σW makes attending to non-disclosure more costly, which reduces at-
tention to withholding, and thereby increases the disclosure threshold (less disclosure). Thus, variation in the cost of attending to different arenas (the σ’s) leads to compara- tive statics on the amount of disclosure essentially identical to those in the basic model varying the α’s.
To build intuition for Part 3 of Proposition 11, observe thatσWαW−σDαD is positive
if the attention expenditure share on αW is greater than the expenditure share on αD.
In this situation, the balance of costs and benefit has caused the individual to substitute resources towardαW. So when attention becomes more substitutable, he substitutes even
more attention toward αW, which increases disclosure and decreases θ∗ (Proposition 2).
The reverse happens when σWαW < σDαD.
Example: Perfect Complementarity:
The analysis matches that of the basic model even more closely in the extreme special case of perfect complementarity between between withholding and disclosing. The perfect complementarity case is obtained when the elasticity of substitution goes to zero (p → ∞) in the attention allocation constraints. Since G≤ 1, it is optimal to allocate attention so as to equate the three components such that
σWαWA =σDαDA =αB = 1;
Thus, the optimal attention levels are
αW = 1
σW, α
D = 1
σD. (34)
Each of theα’s in (34) is a function only of its corresponding exogenousσ. It follows that all propositions of the model with exogenous attention levels are consistent with the per- fect complementarity case, with comparative statics onα’s interpreted as corresponding variations in σ’s as in (34). For example, the amount of disclosure increases with the opportunity cost of attending to disclosure (dθ∗/dσD <0) and the amount of disclosure
decreases with the opportunity cost of attending to non-disclosure (dθ∗/dσW >0).