SÉPTIMO DETERMINACIÓN DE LA SANCIÓN
7.5. El beneficio ilícito como criterio de proporcionalidad.
3.3.1 Target groups of NVAL providers
Policy context
The beneficiaries of NVAL are very diverse, especially considering the definition of adult learning used for the purpose of this study as all forms of learning undertaken by adults after leaving initial education and training, however far this process may have gone17. This means that adult learning covers a broad range of target groups.
While there are substantial cross-national differences in the incidence and volume of con- tinuing education and training among adults, there are also remarkable similarities across countries in the distribution of education and training within sub populations. In general, the adults most and least likely to participate in adult learning are the same groups of people in almost all the countries included in this study. There is wide-ranging evidence that educa- tion is an important predictor of engagement and participation rates increase with levels of initial education. Therefore, the majority of countries are targeting the group of adults least likely to participate in structured learning. Across the countries this group consistently in- cludes the following sub-groups: unemployed adults, older adults, adults in rural areas, adults with physical and sensory disabilities, adults with learning difficulties and disabilities, members of ethnic minorities, prisoners and ex-offenders, recent immigrants, adults gener- ally experiencing economic and/or social disadvantage. Within these priority groups any one individual may, and frequently does, cross over a number of these categories, and thus experience multiple disadvantage.
The focus on target groups is changing over time. The people addressed, for example, are changing because of demographic developments (increasing migration, greater life expectan- cies, higher levels of education and changing willingness of people to assume more of the costs of the learning process). The integration of immigrants into society, for example, is a major concern for European and national policy makers, including education and training au- thorities, with a view to ensuring equality and preventing racial and ethnic discrimination. The Italy country study, for example, shows that the primary NVAL target groups have shifted from factory workers, women, and adolescent dropouts to foreigners and migrants.
17 Definition in the Communication from the Commission “Making a European Area of Lifelong Learning a Real- ity, 2001, p 34.
Differences between formal and non-formal NVAL
The organisation and courses depend on the NVAL provider’s target groups. The first main distinction regarding target groups is the division between formal and non-formal adult edu- cation. Education in the formal adult education sector (in most cases) targets second chance education and preparation for the labour market. This means that adults who have inter- rupted their educational career must have the opportunity to finish their education later in life. The people who participate in the courses and finish them will receive a certificate or a diploma. This will increase their chances in the labour market.
Apart from people who need adult education for labour and economic motives, there are many participants who are involved in adult education out of interest in a specific topic, to learn spe- cific skills, because of a spiritual interest or personal development. These participants can choose from the broad spectrum of providers in the non-formal adult education sector. There are adult education institutions that aim at all adults who are interested in learning, but there are also institutions with specific target groups, which support a number of dis- advantaged groups. Disadvantaged groups are:
Migrants and young people with a migration background: education includes learning the language, obtaining information about the country’s laws and customs, and bringing the educational level in line with the standard level. This category also includes educating minorities.
Disabled people: that is, physically and mentally disabled people, people with dyslexia and reading difficulties, deaf people and those with hearing problems.
The unemployed and those with a low level of education: this category includes the long- term unemployed, formal education dropouts, people facing social problems that they cannot overcome.
Women: this concerns women who are long-term unemployed, facing divorce-related problems.
Prisoners and people connected with criminal activities.On the basis of the interviews we can give a picture of the background of the participants of adult education within our respondent provider institutions. In general the following statements can be made about the group:
Around three quarters of the people do not have a higher education degree
Around 70 percent are either employed or self-employed
Half of them are between 30 and 50 years old.When we divide the cases over the formal and non-formal sub-sector some more precise observations can be made (figure 3.3).
63 Figure 3.3 Level of education of participants divided over the sub-sectors (n=45)
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Formal NVAL provider Non-formal NVAL provider
Mixed (formal and Non-formal)
Lower level of education Secondary education Higher education
Source: Interview NVAL providers in-depth phase (2007)
As can be seen in figure 3.3, there is a difference between the educational level of the for- mal and non-formal sub-sector: the formal sub-sector supports more people with lower education and in the non-formal sub-sector a higher percentage of participants generally have a secondary or higher educational qualification. This difference may be due to the courses the two sub-sectors offer. On the one hand, the courses in the non-formal sub-sector more often concern subjects related to culture and intellectual thought (e.g. philosophy, theology, etc.) which attract more highly-educated people. On the other hand, a part of the courses in the formal sector are especially designed for people with lower education and those who need second chance education. People in this category are un- der-educated, job seekers, long-term unemployed and socially disadvantaged groups. The next graph shows that over 30 percent of participants in the formal sub-sector are unem- ployed, against around 12 percent of the non-formal participants (figure 3.4).
Figure 3.4 Employment status of participants divided over the sub-sectors (n=45)
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Formal NVAL provider Non formal NVAL provider
Mixed (formal and non formal)
Self employed Unemployed Employed
Figure 3.5 shows that there is a difference with regard to the age of the participants. The category ‘under 30’ in the formal sub-sector is almost twice as large as it is in the non- formal sector. An explanation can be sought along the lines supported by the first two graphs. A large proportion of participants in formal NVAL are second chance learners and disadvantaged social groups.
Figure 3.5 Age of participants divided over the sub-sectors (n=45)
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Formal NVAL provider Non formal NVAL provider Mixed (formal and non formal)
>50 30-50 <30
Source: Interview NVAL providers in-depth phase (2007)