El clima escolar y convivencia con valores

67 diseased environment especially HIV and AIDS. The study recommends a need to establish site and service schemes, low income cooperatives, subsidized health schemes to residents and awareness campaigns especially on crimes and immoral behavior, HIV and AIDS for a sustainable urban livelihood to exist in Chiredzi.

68 Ifediora et al. (2015) evaluated the extent of incorporation of customers‘ specific affordability needs in the Nigeria National Housing Fund (NHF) scheme. It ascertains the adequacy of the consideration given to the specific affordability needs of potential beneficiaries of the NHF scheme and determines the adequacy of the consideration given to the inputs from the intended beneficiaries of the NHF scheme. Descriptive and exploratory research designs are adopted for the study. Different offices of the Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria, namely the implementers of the NHF scheme, in Abuja, Port-Harcourt, Ibadan, Enugu, Lagos, as well as the 19 state/district offices in these zones are studied. The population of the study includes 201 management staff and officers in these offices. Considering the size of the population and the nature of the investigation, a census is undertaken.

Data for the study were collected through structured questionnaire. The formulated hypotheses are tested using analysis of variance (ANOVA), at 5% level of significance. Results of the hypotheses tests show that; the consideration given to the specific affordability needs of the intended beneficiaries in the NHF affordability criteria is not adequate (Fcal = 73.064, P = 0.000

< 0.05). And, the consideration given to the inputs from the intended beneficiaries of the NHF scheme is not adequate (Fcal = 116.009, P = 0.000 < 0.05). In line with findings of this study, it was concluded that little attention is paid to the specific affordability needs of the target beneficiaries of the NHF scheme. Following the findings and study conclusion, it is proposed that the implementation of the Need-based Housing Affordability Model developed in this study, will aid the successful planning and execution of housing affordability strategies, thus boosting the performance of housing development programs.

A study by Awuvafoge (2013) examined the factors that limit the supply of adequate affordable housing in Ghana especially in the urban areas. The study was motivated by the problem which specifies that at an estimated average urban growth rate of more than three percent per annum between 2000 and 2030, the urban population in the country is expected to increase by 65% by 2030 and this will further increase the demand for housing in the country. The research utilized secondary sources of data to analyze and identify the major impediments to the provision of affordable housing. It was found that the scarcity of land in urban areas and the high cost of building materials make it difficult for low-income groups to become homeowners.

69 Additionally, the study found that the rent system in the country is unfriendly and this leads to homelessness in the urban centers. The study also found that high poverty levels and the lack of easy access to finance in the form of mortgage loans further compound the housing situation in the country. Recommendations and suggestions of the study relate to preventing the population explosion in the country, facilitating and safeguarding access to land, promoting the use of local building materials, changing the rent system in the country, and ensuring access to home finance and other credit facilities.

Hegedüs, Eszenyi, Teller and Kiss-Molnár (2009) in a study using 11 indicators measuring the quality of housing, housing density, the characteristics of the living environment, affordability and satisfaction with housing conditions; analyzed the housing conditions of social groups according to age, income, household type, education, settlement type, tenure and building type.

They made the following findings:

i. the cause of the housing problem (in the case of flexible and competitive markets) in the long run was that households living in bad conditions do not have enough income to afford the expenses of adequate housing.

ii. there were a number of economic and social factors which led to serious housing problems: rigid housing market; housing as capital (rather than consumer good);

discrimination; extreme differences in income; distorted ownership structure (housing privatization, lack of support policy and neutral tax system); monopolies (banks, providers, etc.); limitations of controlling housing expenses in housing estates and condominiums.

iii. the individual behavior of households (irrational consumption patterns, irresponsible household finances, tax evasion, maximization of subsidies, unexpected illness, divorce etc.) also plays a role alongside the structural (social) reasons.

70 The main conclusions were:

a. The groups based on income and education were clearly the most important determinants of poverty housing. That is, the housing conditions of low-income groups with low levels of education were critical in almost every regard.

b. Generally, there was a weak correlation between the various elements of the housing problem and region or type of settlement.

c. The analysis of demographic groups showed substantial differences between younger (under 45) and older (over 55) people. That is, different elements of the housing problem were concentrated in the two groups (unlike the income and education variables, where the housing of families in a worse situation grew worse in every dimension). Demographic factors increasing the chances of bad housing conditions were: single-parent families and families with children.

d. The rental sector was in a critical situation. This included the situation of people who inhabit housing as a ―relative of the owner‖ as well as the problems of people living in other types of housing.

The study recommends that the redistribution of income would thus, in the case of flexible supply, automatically solve the housing problem.

In a study of the effects of credit availability on housing supply, as reviewed by Doling, Vandenberg and Tolentino (2013), Chan (1999) argues that because most builders are small firms with little internal capital, aggregate house construction will be negatively impacted during periods of tight credit. His regression results using data for the U.S. indicate that credit availability plays a significant role in the level of construction activity especially for speculative construction.

In Doling, et al. (2013), Erbas and Nothaft (2005) applied the Washington University Macro Model, a quarterly econometric system with 442 equations and 611 variables, to countries in the Middle East and North Africa. They simulated the likely effect of sharp reductions in mortgage

71 and other lending rates on house construction and GDP growth over 10 years. The simulation was conducted for changes of 200, 400, and 600 basis points in both residential mortgage rates and long-term corporate bond yields. The latter were included for two reasons.

First, reforms that result in lower residential mortgage rates are also likely to include reforms that would reduce lending rates to businesses. Second, because many lower- and middle- income homeowners in developing countries are also small business owners, housing loans are likely to finance business development. The results show that with no change in corporate bond yields, housing construction increases in the first 10 years by almost 3% as a result of a 200-basis-point reduction in mortgage rates. It increases by almost 6% with a 400-point reduction, and almost 10% with a 600-point reduction. If the reforms also cause a reduction in business lending rates of 600 basis points, then house construction grows by 12% in part due to the growth of the economy.

The simulation also indicates the impact on GDP growth in the first 10 years. In this scenario, the decrease in mortgage lending rates in the absence of a corresponding decrease in business lending rates results in lower GDP growth. This outcome appears to come about because increased residential development diverts resources from other types of investment. If rates for both forms of lending decrease by 600-basis-points, however, annualized GDP growth would increase by 0.1% (Doling, et al., 2013).

Alaghbari, Salim, Dola and Ali (2009) embarked on a study to identify the factors that cause housing shortage for low‐income groups in Yemen and recommend some solutions to alleviate the problem. A questionnaire survey was used as the tool to carry out this study. The first part of the questionnaire consisted of three groups namely: economic, administrative, and legal factors.

The second part consisted of suggestions on housing supply, construction methods, and materials used for low‐cost housing in Yemen. The level of importance of the categories was measured and the relative importance of weightage was ranked. The results show that the most important economic factors causing housing shortage were poor handling of available economic resources and shortage of economic resources. The most important administrative factors causing housing

72 shortage were lack of organization and synchronization and not conducting studies on housing.

The most important legal factor causing housing shortage was lack of legalization of housing.