Table 3.1 form Chapter 3 also includes a ranking of research needs regarding financing of offshore wind farms. The ranking exercise within the CA-OWEE members results in the following critical research need regarding the financing issue:
• Generic evaluation of large offshore wind farm investment costs taking into account cost influencing factors (distance from shore, water depth, wind and wave climate, soil conditions)
Final Report December 2001 page 6-9
6.4
REFERENCES
References are numbered in chronological order as they appear in the text. Additional bibliography on the subject is listed in Appendix 3.
1 van de Sande, A.M.C., 1997: Windfarm 'Lely' - first offshore project in the Netherlands, Proceedings of Offshore Wind Energy in Mediterranean and other European Seas. ATEANA/ENEA, Sardinia
2 Midkraft, 1995: Tunø Knob offshore wind farm, Midkraft I/S, Aarhus
3 Kelter-Wesenberg, C. and Stiesdal, H., 1997: The world's first offshore wind farm - a
manufacturers experience, Proceedings of Offshore Wind Energy in Mediterranean and other European Seas. ATEANA/ENEA, Sardinia
4 Lange, B., Aagard, E., Andersen, P.E., Møller, A., Niklassen, S. and Wickman, A., 1999: Offshore wind farm Bockstigen - installation and operation experience, Proceedings of the 1999 European Wind Energy Conference and Exhibition, Nice, March 1999.
5 DEA/CADDET, 2000: Electricity from offshore wind. Danish Energy Agency and IEA CADDET Renewable Energy Programme, ETSU, Harwell UK
6 Greenpeace, 2000: North Sea Offshore Wind - a powerhouse for Europe, Greenpeace, Hamburg 7 Border Wind, 1998b: Offshore wind energy: Building a new industry for Britain, Greenpeace 8 Cockerill, T.T., Harrison, R., Kuhn, M. and al., e., 1998: Opti-OWECS Final Report Volume 3:
Comparison of offshore wind energy at european eites., Technical University of Delft
9 Kuhn, M., 2001: Dynamics and design optimisation of offshore wind energy conversion systems. Ph.D. Thesis, 282 pp
10 Hartnell, G. and Milborrow, D., 2000: Propects for offshore wind energy, BWEA Report to the EU Alterner Contract XVII/4.1030/Z/98-395), London
11 Svenson, J. and Olsen, F., 1999: Cost optimising of large scale offshore wind farms in the Danish waters, Proceedings of the 1999 European Wind Energy Conference and Exhibition, Nice
12 ECN, 1999: Dutch Offshore Wind Energy Converter (DOWEC), http://www.ecn.nl/unit_de/ wind/dowec/.
13 Kuhn, M., Bierbooms, W.A.A.M., van Bussel, G.J.W., Ferguson, M.C., Göransson, B., Cockerill, T.T., Harrison, R., Harland, L.A., Vugts, J.H. and Wiecherink, R., 1998: Structural and economic optimization of bottom-mounted offshore wind energy converters. JOR3-CT95- 0087 (Five vols. plus summary), Institute for Wind Energy, Delft University of Technology, Delft
14 Knight, S., 1995: Heading offshore. Windpower Monthly, January, 46-47
15 Renewable Energy World, 2000: Going to sea: offshore plans - an overview of plans for large scale wind farms in Europe. Renewable Energy World, Jan-Feb 2000
16 Schmidt, T., 2001: Wind auf dem Wasser. VDI nachrichten, 20(18 May 2001), 3
17 Larssen, A.K., 1994: The environmental impact from an offshore plant, Offshore Wind Energy in Mediterranean and other European Seas (OWEMES). ATENA/INSEAN, Rome
18 Olsen, F. and Dyre, F., 1993: Vindeby offshore wind farm - construction and operation., BWEA/DTI Joint Seminar on Offshore Wind Energy, June 29 1993, Harwell
19 Wind Developments, 1999: Offshore wind: the technical challenge. Wind Directions, September 1999, 20-22.
20 van Zanten, W., 1996: Lely wind farm. CADDET Newsletter, September 1996. 21 Henderson, A., 2000: Analysis tools for large floating offshore wind farms 22 CADDET, 1996: Denmark's second offshore wind farm. CADDET, June 1996
23 Madsen, P.S., 1996: Tunoe Knob offshore wind farm, 1996 European Wind Energy Conference. H.S. Stephens and Associates, Goteborg, pp. 4-7
24 BWEA, 2000: Propects for offshore wind energy, Report to the EU Alterner Contract XVII/4.1030/Z/98-395), London
25 Jessian, S. and Larsen, J., 1999: Offshore wind farm at the bank Middelgrunden near Copenhagen Harbour, Proceedings of the 1999 European Wind Energy Conference and Exhibition, Nice
Final Report December 2001 page 6-10 26 International Energy Agency, 2001: IEA wind energy annual report 2000, National Renewable
Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado
27 Sørensen, H. C. et al. 2000: Middelgrunden 40 MW offshore wind farm, a prestudy for the Danish offshore 750 MW wind program, Proceedings ISOPE 2000 Conference Seattle (2000) 584-591
28 Larsen, J. and Sørensen, H. C. (2001): The world´s largest off-shore windfarm, Middelgrunden 40 MW, World Sustainable Energy Day 2001, Wels, Austria, 8pp
29 Whittaker T.J.T. et al., Islay Gulley Shoreline Wave Energy Device Phase 2: Device Construction and Monitoring. ETSU WV1680, ETSU
30 Goodall, N., 2001: Prospects ffor offshore wind energy, OWEMES 2000. ATENA/ENEA, Siracusa, pp. 327-359
31 Wizelius, T., 2000: Stora planer for vindkraft till havs. Energimagasinet, 4
32 Madsen, B.T., 1997: 4000 MW of offshore wind power by 2030. Windstats Newsletter, 10, 1-3 33 Energistyrelsen, 1997: Havmølle-Handlingsplan for de Danske Farvande, Energistyrelsen,
Copenhagen, DK
34 Fletcher, I., 2001: Technology status report offshore wind energy, ETSU, Harwell 35 Giebel, G., 2001: On the benefits of distributed generation of wind energy in Europe,
Fortschritt-Berichte VDI, Roskilde, 106 pp
36 Landberg, L., 1993: Short-term prediction of local wind conditions., Denmark, 143 pp
37 Pedersen, T., 1998: Offshore wind power - the operational aspects. In: S. Powles (Editor), WInd Energy 1998: Proceedings of the twentieth British Wind Energy Association Conference. Professional Engineering Publishing, Cardiff, pp. 277-283
38 Gardner, P., Craig, L.M. and Smith, G.J., 1998: Electrical systems for offshore wind farms. In: S. Powles (Editor), Wind Energy 1998: Proceedings of the twentieth British Wind Energy Association Conference. Professional Engineering Publishing, Cardiff, pp. 309-317.
40 Grainger, W. and Jenkins, N., 1998: Offshore windfarm electrical connection options. In: S. Powles (Editor), WInd Energy 1998: Proceedings of the twentieth British Wind Energy Association Conference. Professional Engineering Publishing, Cardiff, pp. 319-324 41 WIND Directions, July 2001: European Review: The Top 12 Markets.
Final Report December 2001 page 6-11
Table 6.1: Cost details of existing1 wind farms
Name #, size, make of turbines MW Year €cnt /kWh MWh/y Investment 2 (€/kW) Min fetch (km) Water depth (m) Comments Refs
Nogersund SE 220 kW Wind World 0.22 1990 0 0.25 6 [17]
Vindeby DK 11 450 kW Bonus 5 1991 8.5 11200-11730 1939-2150 1.5 2-5 Availability > 95% in the first 5 years. Lightning strikes more frequent than on land. Mean wind
speed 7.5 m/s. [3, 5, 10, 18, 19] Lely, IJsselmeer, NL 4 NedWind 500 kW 2 1994 8.6- 13.7 3800 1700-2600 0.8 5-10
Stall-controlled on single pile foundations. Mean wind speed 7.7 m/s.
[5, 10, 19, 20, 21] Tunø Knob,
DK 10 Vestas 500 kW 5 1995 8.17 6.6- 12500-12700 2040-2200 6 3.1-4.7
Pitch controlled. Availability better than expected but slightly lower than for a neighbouring onshore farm. Mean wind speed 7.5 m/s.
[5, 9, 10, 19, 22, 23] Irene Vorrink, NL 28 Nordtank 600 kW 16.8 1996 37000 0.02 5 [5, 19] Bockstigen, SE* 5 Wind World 550 kW
2.75 1998 8000-8500 1455 4 5.5-6.5 First to use drilled monopile foundations. Costs ~ 15-20% > land based [4, 9, 10]
Blyth, UK 2 Vestas 2 MW 4 2000 7-8 12000 1 8.5 Coast approx. 5p/kWh [24]
Middelgrunden
, DK 20 Bonus 2 MW 40 2000 6 89000 2-3 3-6
Owned equally by a wind energy co-operative with over 3000 members & local electricity utility. 56% cost reduction compared with Vindeby.
[5, 25, 26, 27, 28] Utgrunden,SE 7 Tacke 1.425 MW 10 2000 38000 8 7.2-10 [9] Yttre Stengrund, SE 5 NEG MICON 2 MW 10 2001 30000 [29] Total ~ 90 ~170.000
1 see also par. 9.2.1 for other details of existing wind farms
Final Report December 2001 page 6-12
Table 6.2: Cost details for planned wind farms (Spring 2001)
Name Turbines Total
MW Year Cost/ kWh €cnt/ kWh Production MWh/y Comments Refs
Horns Rev, DK 80 Vestas 2MW 160 2002 0.35 DKK 4.7 [5, 32] Rødsand, DK 72 Bonus 2.1-2.2MW 151-158 2002 0.36 DKK 4.8 [5, 32, 33] Breedt, FR 7.5 2002? 6.4 Læsø Syd, DK 150 2003 0.35 DKK 4.8 396,000 [5, 10, 32] Nearshore,
NL 100 2003 0.16 NLG 7-8 300,000 receives subsidy of max NLG 60 m in connection with R&D programme [10] Omø Stålgrunde, DK 150 2004 0.37 DKK 5.0 434,000 [5, 10, 32] Gedser, DK 150 2006 0.38 DKK 5.1 [5, 32, 33] Arklow Bank, EI
500 10 km to coast, licence granted for
monitoring Sep. 2000. ~ 27% more investment than onshore
Note: a number of planned projects are not included because no cost details are known, such as the 13 sites in the UK, 17 in Germany and at least 4 in Poland. See chapter 9.2 for a full review.
Final Report December 2001 page 6-13
Table 6.3 Description and evaluation of National incentives to promote offshore wind energy
Description Evaluation
BE
Currently existing incentives are limited to Independent Power Producers and to projects smaller than 10 MW. A new system based on green certificate trading and a renewable energy quota with penalties for the 2 main Belgian regions (Flanders and Wallonia) is expected soon.
N/A
DK
1. Utilities have until now been obligated to buy the energy produced by wind turbines. 2. The feed-in tariff is currently DKK 0.33/kWh (EUR 0.044/kWh) plus green certificates
varying from DKK 0,1/kWh to DKK 0,27/kWh (EUR 0.013-0.036/kWh) running for the first 42,000 hours of an offshore project with the rated power in typical places, app. 10 years. For the Horns Rev and Rødsand projects, a tariff of DKK 0,453/kWh (EUR 0,06/kWh) has been set. After 42,000 hours with the rated power the price will be based on the day-to-day market electricity prices plus green certificates.
The green certificate system has been progressively delayed and following the outcome of a public hearing on the subject (September 2001), its introduction is postponed for minimum two more years starting up from 2005.
3. Public support for feasibility studies for cooperatives
The uncertainty not knowing the prices (due to the introduction of green certificates) makes people reluctant. As a consequence, no onshore turbines have been planned since the green certificates were
introduced.
The fixed feed-in tariff was securing continuous investments in wind energy, but had to be given up because of political resistance and liberalization requirements.
FI Investment subsidy of 25-30 % given by the Ministry of Trade and Industry. A part of the energy tax is refunded (0.04 FIM/kWh). N/A
FR No specific incentive for offshore. N/A
GE
There is no firm governmental planning to develop offshore wind energy in Germany; Germany’s Renewable Energy Sources Act (EEG – Erneuerbare Energien Gesetz) continues the reimbursement at a fixed feed-in tariff.
In the reformed EEG a specially raised tariff is foreseen during the first nine years of operation of an offshore wind farm. This regulation is limited to projects coming online before the end of 2006.
The Development of wind energy in Germany under the umbrella of a fixed feed-in tariff system is seen as a major success and as an appropriate tool to develop a strong market.
No evaluation as of yet – indication for attractiveness is the large number of projects applying for permissions in the German Bight.
GR i) Subvention of up to 50% of the capital investment, ii) subsidization of loan interest, iii) tax-exemptions N/A
IR
No specific incentive for offshore wind farms. The Alternative Energy Requirement (AER) competitive bidding process is open to offshore wind energy. The target in AER V for wind energy is 240 MW, 40 MW of which is reserved for small-scale (= 3 MW) wind farms. There are also plans for a Grid Upgrade Development Programme to accommodate additional renewable energy based generating capacity.
While AER V is open to offshore wind energy projects, planning permission must be evidenced in order to participate in the competition, which will effectively exclude offshore wind farms.
Final Report December 2001 page 6-14
Description Evaluation
IT Green certificates, region structural funds N/A
NL
* System of Green Certificates. Spot market mechanism combined with a “Balancing Market” in the Amsterdam Power Exchange.
* Fiscal incentives: Subsidies, REB (eco-tax), Vamil, Fiscal incentives do not yet apply outside the 12 nm zone.
Green certificates introduce more stability in the renewable energy market, which is a main requirement for potential investors.
Spot market mechanism combined with the “Balancing Market” in the Amsterdam Power Exchange will positively affect the wind energy market.
(Ref. Funtionele eisen van offshore winden, Kema, dec. 1998, pg. 15)
PL None. N/A
SE
There are currently no earmarked incentives focused on offshore wind power. The general support for introducing wind power in the power system is:
1. Investment aid, 15% of the total investment in a wind power plant is paid as a state subsidy.
2. Environmental bonus which is connected to the tax system for electric power , from 1 Jan 2001, 0,181 SEK (0,02 EUR)
3. Special support in order to make relief the consequences of fast decreasing power prices after deregulation 0,09 SEK (0,01 EUR)
4. Right to connect a small scale power station to the electric grid (small scale < 1,5 MW) 5. Special pay for decreasing losses in the electric grid up to 0,02 SEK (0,002 EUR).
The support system has been working the way it was intended – to develop an annual production of 0,5 TWh electric power from wind- but it has not given the long time security, which is needed, to interest investors and creditors. For example, today’s support system finishes 31 December 2002 with only promises of a new one, which nobody knows how it will be designed.
A recent study initiated by government shall investigate how the support system can be replaced of a green certificate system 1 Jan 2003.
SP
No differences with onshore farms:
The strategy of the Spanish government is summarized in the new "Program for Promotion of Renewable Energies" (Reference 1, see appendix) approved by the Parliament to
maintain the situation of the Royal Law 2818/1998-23 December 1998, about the Electrical Special Regime for Renewable Energy Plants connected to the grid. That law fixed the price and the bonus of the electricity produced by renewable energy plants, price that will be up- dated every year by the Spanish Ministry of Energy and Industry according to the annual variation of the market price. All owners of installations using renewable energies as primary source, with an installed power equal to or lower than 50 MW, have two options, one is a fixed priced for the kWh generated, and a second option is a variable price, calculated from the average price of the market-pool, plus a bonus per kWh produced. In 2000 the bonus added to the base price was 0,0288 Euro/kWh and the fixed price was 0,0626 Euro/kWh.
Final Report December 2001 page 6-15
Description Evaluation
UK
Primary market is likely to be Licensed UK Electricity Suppliers to fulfil their Renewable Energy Obligation commitments. Revenue will consist of:
• Energy sale to supplier on a “negative demand” contract or through amalgamation mechanism on NETA power exchanges.
• Sale of Renewables Obligation Certificates (ROCs). • Sale of Climate Change Levy Exemption Certificates • Use of system charge or benefit
Net value of the above expected to be around GBP 0.05/kWh (EUR 0.08/kWh). Internationally traded Green Certificates may also play a role.
Capital grant budget recently announced of £39m from DTI plus £50m from National Lottery for offshore wind power (mainly) and biomass. Distribution method under discussion.
Final Report December 2001 page 7-i