El enfoque comunicativo textual en el salón de clase

One of the most effective strategies for tackling negative racial stereotyping and raising achievement for BME pupils is increasing the presence of BME (Education Commission, 2004) and anti-racist teachers in schools (Arbouin, 1989).

Teachers provide the main interface with the school system and thus received a lot of the criticism relating to negative school experiences in the narratives. Their lack of awareness of cultural diversity and a negative racial stereotyping of BACs appeared to be at the root of the problem. Contemporary race research has focused on deconstructing ‘whiteness’ as a means to understand how racism is perpetuated. A fundamental issue is that due to centuries of racial domination, ‘whiteness’ is a position of privilege in a system of racial signification. It is construed as natural and normal, whilst non-whites are constructed as ‘others’ with ‘racialised identities’ (Dabydeen, Gilmore and Jones, 2007; Wright, Thompson and Channer, 2007; Sewell, 1997).

Sewell (1997) suggests that Hardiman and Jackson’s (1996) racial identity development model can be used by teachers to explore their own understanding of race and social justice, without feeling exposed. One of the main obstacles to raising teachers’ awareness is their natural reluctance to acknowledge that racism exists within them, because of feelings of guilt. However, the recognition that ‘racial domination is a system that positions or constructs everyone who falls within its orbit’ (Sewell, 1997; 196) is a crucial step in accepting the reality that both black and white people imbibe racist ideology. Although race is perceived as a physical reality, advances in evolutionary biology show a single human race with a common ancestry and thus discredits the notion that human beings can be sub-divided into distinct ‘races’ (Salifu, 2007). Singh posits:

Within the sociological frame, ‘race’ by and large is understood as a social and ideological construct, designed to serve no other function than to justify racism and domination. (Singh, 2004; 24)

‘Whiteness’ and ‘blackness’ then, are not about skin colour, but part of a (hierarchical) system of racial signification that can be challenged through raising awareness of the illusion of race and learning respect for other cultures.

Wright, Thompson and Channer (2007) use Fanon’s (1986) concept of‘Black Skin, White Mask’to demonstrate that the presence of black educators in racist institutions does not necessarily equate to diversity, because in order to bypass institutional barriers and gain entry they must adopt white norms of behaviour. Applying this to

the school context, it follows that black skin is no guarantee of an anti-racist teacher. Nonetheless, participants that encountered black teachers were incredibly positive about their influence, providing several examples of their fair treatment of black pupils, as well as the additional guidance and support that they offered.

Michelle recalled her experience of being placed in a set below her ability, where a Caribbean teacher, seeming to be aware of the injustice, took a special interest in ensuring that she and her friends were promoted to the higher set.

So there were thirty children and four black children in that class. And we had a West Indian, Trinidadian teacher and... when I got there I liked her, because she was nice to me. ...what I realise [now is] she was actually coaching us. And I think she knew that we all had the ability to be in the top class and there was something else that must have been going on. Because at the end of that year only three children moved up and they were all black children... me and my other two friends. And she was geeing us along and asking us how we were doing and things like that. So I think she made it her business to get us into that top class, because she clearly thought that there was something else going on. But we wouldn’t have known as children. (Michelle, Teacher)

hooks’ (1994) deduces that teachers’ awareness of different cultural codes in the classroom is essential for true inclusion for BME and working class students. Michelle, in her capacity as a teacher, reiterates this point in relation to the school where she is now employed. She is aware that black teachers’ cultural

understandings can neutralise the negative impact on BAC students caused by some teachers’ erroneous interpretations of the student’s behaviour.

I think the school is more than 50% black…but among the teaching staff I think they’ve got one permanent black teacher, one teacher on a year contract, and me. So the children, I think, are very happy to see another black teacher. And sometimes its important to be aware of culture… when they’re in school, education, I think, still seems to be a very white, middle class environment and those are the rules, those are the standards, and if that’s not what you are actually doing, then you are seen somehow to be deviant. And so a lot of the time some of the black children are seen to be deviant. Now to me, I think West Indian culture tends to be a lot louder than European culture, so the children are being loud, but I don’t necessarily see that they’re doing anything wrong. If they’re not working they’re doing something wrong, but if they’re being loud they’re not doing anything wrong. I know I can look up and I can see my middle class section at the top …they’re talking, they’re chatting, but they’re getting on with their work. [The] black section will be talking more loudly, but they’re still getting on with their work. Sometimes when I had my Teaching Assistant in the class he’d be saying ‘Oh, look you’re making noise, you’re talking loudly, get on with your work,’ and they’ll turn round and say ‘Well I’ve done this and I’ve done that,’ and he’ll say ‘Show me.’ And they’ll show him and then he’ll say ‘Alright then,’ but I don’t think it connects with him that they are doing work, because he’ll say the same thing and respond to them the very same way in the next lesson. Because he is white and middle class that isn’t his culture and he feels that if you’re making lots of noise and you have been chatting and he can hear you chatting you can’t possibly be doing work. But I know that they are, because I’m keeping my eye on them and I’ve also got something called Ranger where I can see exactly what they’re doing on their [computer] screens… (Michelle, Teacher)

Nora, having excelled in her teaching career became a Head Teacher in her early thirties. She herself left school with few qualifications and has dedicated her career to improving the performance of schools with large numbers of black and working class children. She makes the following observation about the difficulties that black children face, which she attributes as directly contributing to poor school leaving results:

It has a lot to do with school; the teachers not understanding the attitudes of the black boys in particular and with that comes low expectations about what they can do. They’re not driven as hard as they could be under the right circumstances. They don’t want to work for teachers when they don’t feel that the teachers like them. That is a big thing. I’ve witnessed that myself too often. The curriculum isn’t really geared towards the black children. There’s not a lot in there that they can relate to. For example, I can take a lesson and I can chip in things like say, ‘Yeah, and you know when you have your rice and peas on a Sunday...’ The children’s ears will prick up. They’ll [think]... ‘There’s something in there for me. She’s teachingme.’ Whereas they don’t get that with the white teachers and that hinders them as well. They’re not as motivated on that score. (Nora, Head Teacher)

With the benefit of hindsight, there was awareness amongst participants that the mainstream school curriculum had largely served to alienate them as black people through the racism they experienced and the absence of any black perspectives or genuine multiculturalism in the curriculum. A truly multicultural curriculum would consistently include a diverse range of African and Asian heritage cultures, authors,

art, history and scientists in all subject areas. It would, thus, provide a more holistic worldview that acknowledges BME contributions to society. Introducing a multicultural curriculum is an effective way to build positive identities amongst BME students and combat negative racial stereotyping (eg Sewell, 1997; Jiwani and Regan, 1998). However, participants were unified in the opinion that any positive sense of their BAC identity that related to education, had been developed via extra curricular activities. As Zac commented:

[There’s] a need for change in how we’re educated, because we’re in a system that doesn’t say anything positive about black people. (Zac, Entrepreneur)

Those who had become teachers, in particular, believed that the situation remained largely unchanged since their childhood and lauded the need for the curriculum to reflect the diversity of the school and UK population. Both Channer (1995) and Mac an Ghaill (1988) talk about the rejection of school as a means of maintaining self-esteem, in, and as, opposition to an environment that denigrates the student’s own culture. Interviewees recognised this antagonism and were conscious of a need to inform their own children about black contributions to society, in order to reinforce positive self-esteem and highlight the link between education and their history and culture as BACs.

[My son] had to do a project on the Romans and so he did [Lucius] Septimius Severus, a black Roman emperor. And he just had to do a project on Egypt, which is all about black people, but I made sure that he brought the perspective of not just about the

mummy’s and the pyramids; pyramids is fine, but not just about the things that everybody would talk about. I made sure that he covered things like the development of Chemistry and Astronomy and Sciences and Maths. And he had to do a PowerPoint presentation, so he’s not only teaching himself and making himself feel good as a black person, but he’s also teaching others. And... [laughs] they’re going to realise that every project that this boy does is in relation to black people and how good they are. But that’s what I do and that helps me, because he has to do the project anyway and they’re going to teach him all about the Vikings and the white side of things and the European side of things. So I always make sure that he has the black side of things as well. (Nora, Head Teacher)

Their concerns, as parents of school age children, bring me to the issue of the