El Estado neoliberal y el sistema financiero

Since drug use is highly associated with a pleasure-seeking and outgoing lifestyle, visitors of coffee shops, café’s, discotheques and raves have usually more experience than the

average population. Table 2.5 shows prevalence rates of drug use among three different samples studied in the Antenne monitor among Amsterdam youth: 1) visitors of coffee shops (2001), 2) pubgoers (2000) and 3) visitors of trendy clubs and (house) parties (1998).

Respondents were 25-26 years on average. The response rates were fairly low: about 23- 25% for the pubgoers and clubbers/ravers and 15% for the coffee shop visitors. In addition to the quantitative data, the Antenne monitor also includes qualitative data on new

developments in drugs markets and the nightlife scene, obtained from a panel of insiders recruited in a wide range of youth scenes (Korf et al., 2002).

Table 2.5: Drug use (%) among visitors of coffee shops, pubgoers and clubbers/ravers in Amsterdam

Visitors of coffee shops 2001 (N=203)

Pubgoers 2000 (N=504)

Visitors of clubs and parties 1998 (N=456) Lifetime Last month Lifetime Last month Lifetime Last month

Cannabis 79 88 75 24 85 52 Cocaine 52 19 26 9 48 24 Ecstasy 63 23 34 10 66 41 Amphetamine 39 5 17 2 45 13 Mushrooms 60 6 25 2 45 8 LSD 29 2 8 <0.5 21 1 Poppers 37 7 23 6 39 11 Ketamine 9 2 3 <0.5 4 n.r. Heroin 9 1 1 <0.5 GHB 12 3 7 1 10 2

Non-Dutch men were underrepresented and Duth women were overrepresented in the sample of visitors of coffee shops. The proportion of non-Western respondents in the three samples was 26, 7 and 18, respectively. The proportion of females was 36, 65 and 40 respectively. Source: Antenna monitor Amsterdam (Korf et al., 2002). N.r.=not recorded.

Some comments on table 2.5:

• Coffee shop-goers had a more or less similar pattern of drug use as clubbers and ravers (except for cannabis), while prevalence rates were clearly lower among pubgoers. • Compared to a similar survey in 1990 and 1994, ecstasy use appeared to be much

higher among coffee shop-goers than in 2001. In contrast, cocaine use remained at about the same level. Among clubbers and ravers, cocaine use increased from 1995 to 1998 (LMP: 14% and 24%, respectively).

• The percentage of cocaine users was quite high among visitors of coffee shops and clubs and parties but did not exceed prevalence rates of ecstasy.

• The consumption of the ‘new’ synthetic drug GHB has spread across the country among different populations of users. Yet, quantitative data are only available from the Antenne monitor. In all three samples listed in table 2.5, experience with GHB was fairly common. Current use was highest among coffee shopgoers but this might also be related to the recent upsurge in popularity of this drug (and subsequently higher use rates in the most recent survey).

In addition to the quantitative data, the qualitative panel study of the 2001 Antenne survey further indicated the following:

• Ecstasy seems still to be widely used as a party and rave drug. However, its popularity seems to decrease among clubgoers. According to the panel members, there seems to be a tendency towards moderation, i.e. less frequent use and lower doses at a time. Regular users seem to be less inclined to accept the adverse (after) effects, such as irritability, lack of energy and general malaise, or the increasing amount of time to recover physically and mentally.

• The revival of cocaine since the late nineties now seems rooted. Cocaine is seen as a social lubricant, especially in relaxed environments where one can sniff it without

sneaking around. The formerly separated networks of cocaine and pill users have mixed. Despite the positive reports on cocaine, panel members also observe an increasing

number of obsessive users running into problems (behavioural, financial). Some of them have applied for help.

• Taking drugs in combination seems the rule rather than the exception. Popular combinations are cocaine and alcohol, or GHB and MDMA (to neutralise the sedative effect of GHB).

• Viagra seems to be gradually more common in the nightlife scene to facilitate erection after the consumption of stimulants.

• Ketamine (still) seems to play a rather minor role in the nightlife scene compared to other drugs. However, interest in ketamine has been observed in some party and club

networks but the scarce supply may limit its use.

These indications from qualitative research still require validation from quantitative research.

GHB users

Signs of an increasing popularity of GHB and related health incidents have prompted the Ministry of Health to commission research on the characteristis of GHB use. The study included field observations and in-depth interviews among 72 regular GHB users and other key persons, such as prevention workers, police officials and drug producers (Korf et al., 2002). The sample included only GHB users that had taken GHB 5 times or more, and at least in the past year. The main results are as follows:

• The sample was a fairly mixed group of persons from various ethnic and educational backgrounds. However, generally speaking, the typical GHB user is a western (mainly Dutch), employed male between 20-30 years, who likes the nightlife scene (visiting pubs, parties, discotheques). He likes alcohol, smokes, is commonly a blower and has ample experience with a wide range of psychoactive substances. He prefers stimulants, like cocaine and ecstasy.

• Almost half of the respondents took GHB at least once a week in the past month. The average intake was one vial (about 5 ml), usually split into several doses per evening or day (see also figure 2.4). Consumption took place both in the nightlife scene and in private settings.

Figure 2.4: Pattern of GHB use in the past month among regular experienced GHB users

Frequency of GHB use in past month

0 7.5 11.3 28.3 20.8 32.1 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 daily 4 - 6 days per week 2 - 3 days per week 1 day per week few days per month 1 day per month

% Dose per occasion

27.5 33.4 33.4 3.9 2 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 <1 vial 1 - 2 vials 2 - 5 vials 5 - 10 vials >-10 vials %

One vial contains about 5 ml. Source: Korf et al., 2002. N=72

• GHB was often combined with ecstasy, followed by cannabis, amphetamine and alcohol. The main reasons to combine GHB with ecstasy were the more intense high and the fact that ecstasy somehow neutralised the sedative effects of GHB, which reduced the risk to pass out.

• The main reasons to use GHB were the pleasant high, positive social effects and lack of a negative hangover. In fact, most users reported to feel refreshed on the morning after use.

• Negative self-reported and (ever) self-experienced effects included: vomiting (73%), sudden collapses (25%), twitching of limbs and face (37%) and respiratory problems (16%). Passing out (loosing consciousness) was a fairly common event reported by 64% of the respondents (ever experienced); 10% reported a frequency of at least 10 times. • The association of GHB with sexual offences has been debated. This study indicated that

GHB indeed can be used for such purposes. Some (mainly female) users reported having been harassed (21%), groped (13%) or having had sex against their will (3%) while under the influence of GHB. Sexual abuse seems to occur mainly by people already known by the victim, although they may have just met each other during a night out.