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The implementation of a well-structured training plan results in very specific physi-ological and psychphysi-ological adaptations that alter the athlete’s performance capacity

Variables of Training 93

(65, 72, 79). These adaptations are related to many factors, including the genetic endowment, health status, and training history of the athlete (72). The training plan is a key factor in determining performance outcomes, because training inten-sity, volume, and density all play a significant role in modulating the physiological adaptations that are central to performance (19, 72, 80). Of particular interest is the relationship between the dosage of training and these adaptations.

The physiological systems must be progressively overloaded to induce the adap-tations necessary to improve performance. For example, a high volume of work performed by highly trained endurance athletes at a low intensity does not appear to significantly improve performance or related physiological adaptations (46). A higher work volume or intensity of work is necessary for continued adaptations to occur (16, 38, 46, 64). In another example, the volume load (i.e., volume load = sets 3 repetitions 3 resistance in kg) of training encountered in a strength training plan is strongly related to the muscular adaptations that occur in response to training.

Froböse and colleagues (30) offer evidence that the greater the volume load of train-ing, the greater the stimulus for muscular growth and adaptation, which ultimately could have a profound effect on performance.

If the work volume, training volume, or training intensity is elevated too sharply or exceeds the athlete’s work capacity, a maladaptive response can occur that can result in overtraining (see chapter 5) (31, 32, 77). If this situation occurs, performance can stagnate or even decline in response to the overtraining syndrome induced by the misapplied training stimulus. The training plan must include variations in intensity, volume, and density so the athlete alternates between stimulation and regeneration (i.e., work and rest).

The positive adaptation to a training stimulus increases the training stimulus required by the athlete in training. This increased demand for training stimulus occurs as a result of physiological adaptations that allow the athlete to tolerate greater training loads. Therefore, if the same training load is encountered again, significantly less physiological disturbance occurs, resulting in significantly less physiological adaptation. To continue to stimulate appropriate physiological adapta-tions, the external dosage or workload must be progressively increased, as suggested by the theory of progressive overload (29, 79). Furthermore, if the training load is substantially reduced, the training effect is diminished and an involution phase results. Although a reduction in workload is necessary when the athlete is attempt-ing to dissipate fatigue, recover, or peak for a competition, remainattempt-ing in periods of subthreshold training for too long will result in a loss of physiological adaptations and ultimately performance capacity as a result of detraining (57, 58). During the annual plan if the transition phase is too long and contains passive recovery instead of active recovery, many if not all of the adaptations stimulated by the preparatory and competitive phases of training will be lost.

densiTy

The density of training can be defined as the frequency or distribution of training sessions (79) or the frequency at which an athlete performs a series of repetitions of work per unit of time (15). The density of training can be thought of as a relationship that is expressed in units of time between working and recovery phases of training.

Thus, the greater the density of training, the shorter the recovery time between work-ing phases of trainwork-ing. When increaswork-ing the density of trainwork-ing, the athlete and coach must establish a balance between work and recovery to avoid inducing excessive levels of fatigue or exhaustion, which can lead to overtraining.

It is very difficult to calculate the optimal amount of time needed between multiple training sessions (e.g., within the training day or microcycle) because many factors can contribute to the athlete’s rate of recovery (see chapter 5). The intensity and volume of training encountered within the training session plays a major role in determin-ing the amount of time needed before another traindetermin-ing session is undertaken (79, 82). The greater the workload (i.e., intensity and volume) of the training session, the greater the amount of time needed to recover before preparedness or performance capacity is restored (82, 83). Additionally, the training status of the athlete (82, 83), chronological age of the athlete (23, 45, 71), nutritional interventions used by the athlete (18), and the use of recovery interventions (12, 55) can all affect her ability to recover from training bouts (see chapter 5 for more information). Complete recovery from a training session is not needed before the next training session. A common strategy is to increase the density of training and promote recovery by using training sessions of differing workloads within the training day or microcycle.

Two methods are commonly used to optimize the work-to-rest interval during endurance or interval-based training: (a) fixed work-to-recovery ratios (14, 47, 48, 73, 75) and (b) recovery durations that require heart rate to return to a predetermined percentage of maximum (9, 47, 48, 70).

• Fixed Work-to-Recovery Ratios: Several researchers have used fixed work-to-rest ratios when studying interval-based training (14, 47, 73, 75). By manipulating the work-to-rest interval, the coach and athlete can design a training plan that targets specific bioenergetic adaptations (20) (table 4.7). Work-to-rest ratios of 1:1 or 2:1 target the development of endurance characteristics, whereas ratios of 1:12 or 1:20 target strength- and power-generating characteristics.

• Predetermined Heart Rate: Another method for determining the length of the recovery period is to establish a heart rate that must be achieved prior to performing another work bout (9, 47, 70). One method of using this technique is to set a heart rate range of 120 to 130 beats/min as the cutoff for the initiation of the next work bout (9, 70). A second method is to set the recovery period as the time it takes the athlete’s heart rate to return to 65% of maximum (47, 48).

Computing the density of a training session can be accomplished by calculating what is termed the relative density. The relative density is the percentage of work volume the athlete performs compared with the total volume within the training session. The relative density equation is as follows:

Relative density = Absolute volume 3 100 Relative volume

The absolute volume is represented by the total volume of work that the individual performs, whereas the relative volume represents the total amount of time (duration) for a training session. Let say that the absolute volume of training is 102 min and Table 4.7 Work-to-rest Intervals and Bioenergetic Specificity

Targeted energy system Average work time (s) Work-to-rest ratio

ATP-Pc 5-10 1:12-1:20

Fast glycolysis 15-30 1:3-1:5

Fast and slow glycolysis and oxidative metabolism 60-180 1:3-1:4

oxidative metabolism >180 2:1-1:3

Adapted, by permission, from nScA, 2000, Bioenergetics of Exercise Training, by M. conley. In Essentials of strength training and conditioning, edited by T.r. Baechle and r.W. Earle (champaign, IL: Human Kinetics) 78.

Variables of Training 95

the relative volume is 120 min; the relative density of the training session would be calculated as follows:

Relative density = 102 3 100 = 85%

120

This calculated percentage suggests that the athlete worked 85% of the time. Although the relative density has some value to the athlete and coach, the absolute density of training is more important. The absolute density can be defined as the ratio between the effective work an athlete performs and the absolute volume. The absolute density or effective work is calculated by subtracting the volume of rest intervals from the absolute volume using the following equation:

Absolute density = (Absolute volume – Volume of rest intervals) 3 100Absolute volume Let’s say that the volume of rest intervals is 26 min and the absolute load is 102 min.

The absolute density would then be calculated as follows:

Absolute density = (102 – 26) 3 100 = 74.5%

102

These calculations indicate that the absolute density of training was 74.5%. Because training density is a factor of intensity, the index of absolute density could be consid-ered medium intensity (see table 4.1). Determining the relative and absolute density of training can be useful for establishing effective training sessions.

ComplexiTy

Complexity refers to the degree of sophistication and biomechanical difficulty of a skill. The performance of more complex skills in training can increase training intensity. Learning a complex skill may require extra work, in comparison to basic skills, especially if the athlete possesses inferior neuromuscular coordination or is not fully concentrating on the acquisition of the skill. Assigning complex skills to several individuals who have no previous experience with the skill discriminates quickly between well-conditioned and poorly conditioned athletes. Therefore, the more complex an exercise or skill, the greater the athlete’s individual differences and mechanical efficiencies.

The complexity of previously learned skills may impose physiological stress even though the skills have been mastered. For example, Eniseler (25) demonstrated that heart rate and lactate accumulation are higher with tactical training compared with technical training in soccer players. In that study, the technical portion of the training session centered on skill practice without the presence of an opponent. The addition of an opponent during tactical training significantly increased the complexity of the drills and thus increased heart rate and lactate production. Additionally, when simulated games were undertaken, the complexity of the activities increased again, resulting in a concomitant increase in heart rate and lactate production. The highest heart rates and lactate levels were seen in actual games. In light of this information, the coach should consider the physiological stress of the different portions of the training session in the context of the complexity of the skills or activities used.