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Fig. 6 presents the theoretical model of employability which underpins this work. Skills have been discussed at length, and the focus is now turned to self-efficacy as a component of employability.

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Self-efficacy can be described as people’s belief about their ability to have control over the events which affect their lives (Bandura, 1977, 1989). Considerable interest exists in self-efficacy and its impact on students (Atta et al, 2013; Adams, 2004; Lane et al, 2003; Pajares, 1996).

Early interest into the role of the self in exploring human activity was side-lined during the 1920s to the 1940s by the emergent school of behaviourism whose focus rests on the impact of external stimuli and conditioned response in determining human conduct (Pajares, 2002). Though subsequent movements saw a swing back towards the self with emergence, during the 1950s, of the humanists, most notably Maslow (Pajares, 2002, b), it was not until 1977 that Bandura (1977:191) in positing that “cognitive processes mediate change but ...cognitive events are induced and altered most readily by experiences of mastery arising from effective performance”, introduced self- efficacy. The theory evolved from Bandura’s exploration of the motivation of phobics, and his discovery of the differences in generalisation, specifically the perceived capability to use techniques outside the therapeutic environment, despite having confidence in performance of the technique itself. Bandura (1977:193) is making the distinction between outcome expectancy and efficacy expectancy because despite knowing that an action will produce a certain outcome, doubting in one’s ability to execute the action means “such information does not influence their behaviour”. In developing his work Bandura (1977, 1978, 1986) conceptualised reciprocal determinism – the idea that people reflect, self-regulate and make choices based on the interaction of personal, environmental and behavioural influences. Thus, people are as much architects of their own lives as subject to life. Perceptions of self-efficacy form part of the self- referent process.

People who have high self-efficacy, in other words those who have belief in their abilities, are more likely to embrace challenges while those with low self- efficacy avoid challenges (Bandura, 1977). Bandura suggests “the strength of people’s convictions in their own effectiveness is likely to affect whether they will even try to cope with given situations” (1977:193), emphasising the importance

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of personal conviction relating to one’s ability. It is not enough to have ability, but there is a need to have the self-belief to apply it in a situation.

Bandura posits four determinants which inform an individual’s self-efficacy, presented in Fig.7 and subsequently related to the context of this study. He identifies personal accomplishment as most influential since experiences of mastery serve to reinforce personal expectations. He notes that the opposite is true in that failures have a negative impact - not necessarily failure of the task itself but failure to engage with the task makes it less likely that an individual would have the belief to engage on a subsequent occasion – in other words an individual becomes trapped in a downward spiral. However, occasional failure is mitigated by experience of success, thus timing and the overall pattern of experiences is important. As noted later in this review students may decide on postgraduate education to compensate for perceived underachievement in their first degree, to prove to themselves they are capable (Brooks et al, 2009). In this sense the perceived failure is mitigated by being accepted onto a postgraduate programme, firm in the belief that this will provide the opportunity to demonstrate true ability.

Alternatively, in a higher education setting, the importance of managing student expectations is noted, when making the transition from undergraduate to postgraduate study. Former success may offset concerns about an initial struggle to engage at a higher level, though this may manifest itself later in an inability to accept criticism which may be perceived as unjustly, and destructively, critical, rather than constructive.

Vicarious experience can encourage intensification and persistence of effort. Within this Bandura (1977:198) suggests greater positive impact on efficacy is achieved when observing ‘effortful coping behaviour’ (seeing someone struggle and succeed), rather than seeing someone making an activity look easy. Verbal persuasion is widely used, though Bandura suggests this has a weaker effect on self-efficacy than personal experience. He notes the value of persuasion as an adjunct to providing additional support needed to facilitate success, and cautions that the danger in offering

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verbal persuasion without doing so, discredits the persuader, and further undermines self-efficacy.

Fig. 7 Major sources of efficacy information and the principal sources through which different modes of treatment operate. (source Bandura: 1977:195).

Efficacy expectations

Source Mode of induction

Performance Accomplishments Participant Modelling

Performance Desensitisation

Performance Exposure

Self-Instructed Performance

Vicarious experience Live Modelling

Symbolic Modelling

Verbal Persuasion Suggestion

Exhortation

Self-instruction

Interpretive Treatments

Emotional Arousal Attribution

Relaxation, feedback

Symbolic Desensitisation

Symbolic exposure

Applying this to an employment or education setting suggests a number of considerations, for example, the danger in paying lip service to a situation requiring genuine engagement and effort; the importance of trust in working relationships, and the ethical considerations in widening participation in higher education without ensuring mechanisms are in place to facilitate

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participants’ success. Emotional arousal is the interpretation of reaction to situations, for example someone with high self-efficacy will view anxiety manifested in a racing pulse as positive and inspiring, as oppose to destructive and a precursor to failure.

This overview of self-efficacy has provided a background which informs an examination of this relates to the concept of employability. In its relatively short history self-efficacy has been developed and applied in numerous disciplines ranging from studies into depression and social skills to motivation and sporting prowess, and attracting much attention as a tenet within education research, as the following examples demonstrate. Knight & Yorke (2002) draw on the work of Bandura (1997) and Dweck (1999) to advance the USEM model of employability. Dweck (1999) suggests there are two broad facets to self-belief, as proposed by Bandura (1997), these being fixed/entity, and incremental/malleable. The former is the belief that one has a fixed amount of something (for example intelligence) that cannot be changed, the latter that development is possible, and likely to be probable. This idea informs one of the central themes to the study – that undertaking the programme will effect a change in self-efficacy.

There is considerable evidence in literature that females have lower perceptions of self-efficacy than males in academic settings, in career choices and salary expectations, and that these perceptions are long-held (Hogue et al, 2010; Choi, 2005; Vasil, 1992; Clement, 1987; Sullivan, 2009). In relation to this study, this is of note since much of the work cited into gender perceptions of self-efficacy exists at college/undergraduate level; hence in exploring self-efficacy as contributing to employability, this is an opportunity to explore gender at postgraduate level.

Bandura’s (1977) construct of self-efficacy introduces the concept that achievement is determined by self-belief as well as ability, since, for example, the level of self-belief determines how long an individual is prepared to persevere, how quickly one is capable of recovering from adversity etc., Informed by Bandura (1977), Dweck (1999, 2007) and Knight & Yorke (2002), one aim of this study is to test whether perceptions of self-efficacy change after undertaking a programme,

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researching within the postgraduate population to contribute to the sparse body of work among this group.

As noted earlier, HEIs are tasked with developing employability, through the programmes they offer. The aim of this study is to explore whether postgraduate management education is meeting that aim. Should self-efficacy have increased in this group then there is an opportunity to explore where and how. If interventions can be identified which are perceived as having a positive impact – for example a specific mechanism for delivering feedback which enhances students’ enthusiasm for the next task – then there is potential for these activities to be generalised across other programmes. This notion is explored later, specifically with the analysis and discussion of the qualitative data.

As noted earlier (section 2.3) higher education is increasingly internationalised. Pajares (1997) and Tzung-Jin et al (2013) note cross-cultural dimensions of self-efficacy is under-researched, the latter noting Scholz et al (2002) investigation into cultural which suggests those from collectivist cultures (for example Asian countries) may have lower perceived self-efficacy than those from individualistic cultures. This suggests relevance to this study in light of the diverse nature of postgraduate population, noted earlier.