El papel de los intereses creados en el sector bancario mexicano 

This model mentions that identifying the steps in the training process is pointless if external issues in the form of social, technological, economical, ecological, political, legal and ethical factors (STEEPLE) are not considered, as these factors influence the organisation’s functioning. The view of Nadler (1994) is that it would

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make sense to identify critical events so that training can be structured meaningfully. Figure 2.1 illustrates the CEM, followed by a discussion of each step in the model.

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Figure 2.1: Critical Events Model

(Source: Adapted from Erasmus et al., 2013, p. 30)

STEP 1

Identify the needs of the organisation STEP 2 Evaluation and Feedback STEP 9 Present training STEP 8

Acquire instructional resources

STEP 7

Select instructional strategies

STEP 3

Specify performance

STEP 4

Identify training needs

STEP 5

Formulate training objectives

STEP 6

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Step 1: Identify the needs of the organisation

In this step, the organisational needs are established and the internal factors (the organisation itself and the vision and mission) and external factors (STEEPLE) are considered (Erasmus et al., 2013; Nadler, 1994). Since there is a relationship between the organisation and its environments, the need for training arises from both environments (Erasmus et al., 2013; Nadler, 1994). A study of tacit knowledge management in Columbian SMEs unearths that these enterprises proactively consider both environments when engaging in training (Arias, Betancur & Rodriguez, 2016). However, research on the critical success factors in Indian SMEs notes that SMEs experience difficulty in identifying their needs due to a lack of knowledge on how to conduct a needs analysis (Tyagi, Soni & Khare, 2016).

Step 2: Evaluation and feedback

This step places emphasis on the feedback and evaluation of the training process (Erasmus et al., 2013; Nadler, 1994). Research on personal initiative training in the manufacturing and service-based industries in Germany observes that training evaluation and feedback are constantly provided by SMEs to their employees (Frese, Hass & Friedrich, 2016). Conversely, related studies in Africa have revealed that SMEs often lack the necessary knowledge and tools to provide evaluation and feedback on learning (Omolo, 2015).

Step 3: Specify performance

During this step, performance is specified in accordance with an employee’s tasks that need to be appraised, so that the manager can determine the performance criteria for each employee (Erasmus et al., 2013; Nadler, 1994). A study specifying performance in Spanish SMEs, mentions that small businesses inform their employees of the performance required for each task, and this enables employees to learn and apply new knowledge to the workplace (Ruiz, Gutierrez, Martinnez- Caro & Cegarra-Navarro, 2017). However, similar research on SMEs in Italy, reveal that SMEs struggle with setting criteria for good performance as they do not have established HRD functions or adequate knowledge of how to set performance criteria (Pucci, Nosi & Zanni, 2017).

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Step 4: Identifying training needs

In this step, individual training needs are identified, and since training depends on identified needs, the success of training depends on the accuracy of this step (Erasmus et al., 2013; Nadler, 1994). In SMEs, this would involve training policies and KSAs that employees can appreciate and internalise. Research on SME competitiveness in Kenya notes that SMEs have a well-structured HRD framework that enables training needs to be determined (Irungu & Arasa, 2017). On the other hand, a study on foundational competencies required for job engagement in Malaysian SMEs, reports that, despite SMEs proactively engaging in training, they experience difficulty in identifying training needs owing to the impromptu manner in which they approach training (Haruna & Marthandan, 2017).

Step 5: Formulating training objectives

During this stage, the training objectives against which performance will be assessed are outlined (Erasmus et al., 2013; Nadler, 1994). A South African study on improving SME performance through supply chain integration reveals that SMEs set clear learning objectives and tailor these objectives to meet the developmental needs of their employees (Pooe & Mahlangu, 2017). In contrast, research on strategic planning in SMEs in Botswana, notes that SMEs do not formulate training objectives because of their informal and flexible business nature (Majama & Magang, 2017).

Step 6: Compile a syllabus

This step considers the compilation of a syllabus for training so that relevant material can be included to address the skills gap (Erasmus et al., 2013; Nadler, 1994). Contextual research on HRD in SMEs states that small businesses in many countries use in-house training practitioners to develop their training syllabus based on the training needs and the skills deficiencies of their employees (Nolan & Garavan, 2016). Conversely, studies carried out in Korea on skills training in SMEs show that some SMEs do not have the knowledge to draw up a training syllabus and tend to outsource this to external training providers (Lee, 2016).

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Step 7: Select instructional strategies

During this stage, the training methodology that the training practitioner will use is considered. This is done based on the content of the training intervention and the uniqueness of the training situation (Erasmus et al., 2013; Nadler, 1994). A study on training and development practices in small information technology firms in India mentions that both on-the-job training and off-the-job training are used to up- skill and re-skill employees (Sharma & Kaur, 2016). The findings of Sharma and Kaur (2016) were refuted in a later study on the reluctance of emerging economies to engage in training, where it was found that Chinese SMEs do not purposely engage in either on-the-job or off-the-job training, as there is a general perception that training is a waste of resources (Bai, Yuan & Pan, 2016).

Step 8: Acquire instructional resources

In this step, the effectiveness of the training intervention depends on the resources that are provided by the organisation (Erasmus et al., 2013; Nadler, 1994). A study on training and development practices in small information technology organisations reveals that on-the-job training and off-the-job training are used to up-skill and re-skill employees (Sharma & Kaur, 2016). The study of Nolan and Garavan (2016), which focuses on HRD in South African SMEs, documents that both formal and informal methods are used by SMEs.

Step 9: Present training

In this final stage, Step 1 to Step 8 are collated to enable training to be presented effectively (Erasmus et al., 2013; Nadler, 1994). In SMEs, this step means that they implement the course of action selected and train their employees for the KSAs required. Research on leveraging entrepreneurship training and its impact on SME performance in Italy and Berlin notes that training is presented in accordance with the type of business operations the SME is engaged in (Salimi, 2016). The findings of Salimi (2016) are also found to be true in a study on investing in training in Korean SMEs (Sung & Choi, 2016).

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