According to Gokool-Ramdoo (2008), there have been attempts to develop theories on DE since the 1950s in order to explain underlying issues and challenges in DE. Such attempts led to the emergence of incomprehensive theories which failed to explicate all activities pertaining to DE. In table 2.1, a comparison of theoretical perspectives is provided.
Table 2.1: A comparison of theoretical perspectives (Gokool-Ramdoo, 2008:4) Framework Key concepts Main focus Influential theory Peters - The industrial
model
Industrial & post- industrial
Link societal principles and values
Cultural sociology Moore -Transactional distance theory Transactional distance - learner autonomy (dialogue, structure)
Perceived needs and interest of the adult learner
Independent study
Holmberg - Theory of teaching in DE
Learner autonomy, non- contiguous
Promote learning via personal and
Humanistic approach to education
31 communication(Guided didactic conversation) conversational methods Keegan -Theory of reintegration of the teaching and learning acts
Reintegration of teaching and learning policies
Recreate interpersonal components of face- to-face teaching Framework of traditional pedagogy Garrison (Shale, Bayton)-theory of communication and learner control Educational transaction, learner control, communication Facilitation of the educational transaction Communication theory-Principles of andragogy
There are similarities and differences in the theories described in Table 2.1. However, the theory developed by Keegan (1993) seems to be most comprehensive. It reflects on organisational and transactional issues while having the student as a central figure.
Peters (1983) defines DE as a way of conveying knowledge, skills, and attitudes which is rationalised.by the application of division of labour and organisational principles as well as by the extensive use of technical media, especially for the purpose of reproducing high quality teaching material, which makes it possible to instruct great number of students at the same time wherever they live. It is a developed technique of teaching and learning.
Moore's (1990) concept of transactional distance encompasses the distance that, he says, exists in all educational relationships. This distance is determined by the amount of interchange that occurs between the learner and the instructor, and the amount of structure that happens in the design of the course (Jonassen & Land, 2000). Greater transactional distance occurs when an educational program has more structure and less student-teacher dialogue, as might be found in some traditional DE courses.
McIsaac and Gunawardena (1996:361) states that “education offers a continuum of transactions from less distant, where there is greater interaction and less structure, to more distant, where there may be less interaction and more structure”. Furthermore, McIsaac and Gunawardena (1996) argues that this continuum distortions the
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differences between conventional and distance programs because of the variety of transactions that occur between teachers and learners in both settings. Thus, distance is not determined by geography but by the connection between dialogue and structure.
Holmberg (1981) defines DE as the kind of education which covers the various forms of study at all levels which are not under continuous, immediate supervision of tutors present with their students in lecture rooms on the same premises, but which, nevertheless, benefit from the planning, guidance and tuition of a tutorial organisation.
Holmberg (1995:160), after having studied the work of Bruner, Gagne, Ausubel and Baath (1968) in particular reaffirmed that “DE and thinking about DE are firmly based in general educational theory".
Keegan (1986) identifies three historical approaches to the development of a theory of DE. Theories of autonomy and independence from the 1960s and 1970s, argued by Wedemeyer (1977) and Moore (1973), reflect the essential component of the independence of the learner. Peters’ (1971) work on a theory of industrialisation in the 1960s reflects the attempt to view the field of DE as an industrialised form of teaching and learning.
Recently a wider range of theoretical notions has provided a richer understanding of the learner at a distance (Oyarzun & Elizabeth, 2016). Four such concepts are transactional distance, interaction, learner control, and social presence.
Saba and Shearer (1994) carry the notion of transactional distance a step further by offering a system dynamics model to study the relationship between dialogue and structure in transactional distance. In their study, Saba and Shearer (1994) conclude that as learner control and dialogue increase, transactional distance decreases. It is not location that determines the effect of instruction, but the extent of transaction between learner and instructor. This concept has implications for traditional classrooms.as well as distant ones. The use of integrated telecommunication systems can permit a greater variety of transactions to occur, therefore improving dialogue to minimise transactional distance.
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A second theoretical construct of recent interest to distance educators, and one that has received much attention in the theoretical literature, is that of interaction. Moore (1989) discusses three types of interaction essential in DE. Learner-instructor interaction is that component of his model that provides motivation, feedback, and dialogue between the teacher and student.
Learner-content interaction is the method by which students obtain intellectual information from the material. Learner-learner interaction is the exchange of information, ideas, and dialogue that occur between students about the course, whether this happens in a structured or non-structured manner. The concept of interaction is fundamental to the effectiveness of DE programmes as well as traditional ones.
Hillman, Willis and Gunawardena (1994) have taken the notion of interaction further and added a fourth element to the model learner-interface interaction. They note that the interaction between learner and technology, that distributes instruction, is a critical component of the model, which has been absent thus far in the literature. They suggest a new paradigm that contains understanding the use of the interface in all transactions. Learners who do not have the simple skills required.to use a communication medium spend inordinate amounts of time learning to interact with the technology and have fewer time to learn the lesson.
A third theoretical idea getting attention in the DE literature, is that of unconventionality and learner control. Studies that examine locus of control (Altmann & Arambasich, 1982; Rotter, 1989) conclude that students who perceive that their academic accomplishment is an outcome of their own personal actions, have an inner locus of control and are more likely to persist in their education. Students with an external locus of control feel that their success, or lack of it, is due largely to events such as luck or fate outside their control. Thus, externals are more likely to become dropouts. Factors of control that influence dropout rates have been of concern to distance educators in search for criteria to forecast successful course completion.
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Baynton (1992) developed a model to examine the concept of control.as it is defined by independence, competence, and support. She notes that control is more than independence. It requires striking a balance among three factors: a learner's independence (the opportunity to make choices), competence (ability and skill), and support (both human and material). Baynton's factor analysis endorses the importance of these three factors and suggests other factors that may affect the concept of control and which should be examined.to portray accurately the complex collaboration between teacher and learner in the distance learning setting.
Finally, the social context in which distance learning takes place is emerging as a significant area for research. Theorists are examining how the social environment affects motivation, attitudes, teaching, and learning. There is a common view that technology.is culturally neutral, and can be easily used in a diversity of settings. However media, materials, and services are often inappropriately transferred without attention being paid to the social setting or to the local recipient culture (Mclsaac, 1993).
Technology-based learning actions are often used without attention.to the impact on the local social environment. Computer-mediated communication attempts to decrease patterns of discrimination.by providing equality of social interaction among participants who may be anonymous.in terms of gender, race, and physical features. However, there is evidence that the social equality factor may not extend, for example, to participants who are not good writers but who must communicate primarily in a text- based format (Gunawardena, 1993). It is particularly important to examine social factors in distance learning environments where the communication process is mediated and where social climates are created that are very different from traditional settings.
Feenberg and Bellman (1990) propose a social factor model.to examine computer networking environments that create particular electronic social environments for students and collaborators working in groups.
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One social factor particularly important to distance educators is social presence, the degree to which a person feels “socially present" in a mediated situation. The idea is that social presence is inherent in the medium itself and technologies offer participants varying degrees of "social presence” (Short, Williams & Christie, 1976). Hackman and Walker (1990), studying learners in an interactive television class, found that cues given to students such as inspiring gestures, smiles, and praise were social factors that improved both students' satisfaction and their perceptions of learning. Constructs such as social presence, immediacy, and intimacy are social factors that deserve further inquiry.
Keegan, (1993) has proposed the use of systems theory to assist as a foundation for systemic study of distance learning to contribute.to the conceptual insights about the complexities of DE, and to provide the basis for developing methods for enhancing the teaching-learning environment. According Du Mont (2002), a systems approach looks both inward and outward, focusing on relationships and patterns of interaction between subsystems and their environments within the organisation.
Another view of Saba (1999:25) states that, “a systems approach is necessary to describe DE and define a set of prescriptive principles and rules for its effective use, as well as a set of criteria to determine its effectiveness”. The next section provides a discussion on ODL theory