El problema de conocimiento desde una mirada mecanicista

In this study, the predominant cultural and educational profile of students and local staff encountered by participants was that of a Confucian cultural heritage. Hence, it is relevant to consider the debates surrounding the characteristics of the so-called Chinese learner which have ensued alongside the proliferation of offshore programs in the Asian region since the mid-1990s.

Chinese learners have frequently been stereotyped as members of a fixed, static homogenous group typified by a low level of critical thinking ability, little engagement in spontaneous oral participation, and high avoidance for challenging the authority or expertise of teachers. They have been described, variously, as: preferring classrooms where clear and prescriptive rules and roles are emphasised; adopting a concrete- sequential cognitive learning style; precisely following directions of the teacher; having low tolerance levels for ambiguity and uncertainty; being trusting and respectful of teachers; using learning strategies such as memorization and repetition; and having a collective orientation displayed, for example, through preferences for small group work (Li 2012; Nelson 1995; Oxford & Burry-Stock 1995).

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Small group work, for example, has been advocated as an inherent aspect of a culture- sensitive, learning-centred approach, as it exploits the Confucian concepts of co- operation, self-effacement and saving face (Flowerdew 1998), although concerns have also been raised as to suitable design and behaviours in groups. Tang (1996) advocated the examination of certain cultural-social dynamics, such as obvious hierarchies and informal configurations in groups, because they influenced the level of individual engagement in group work. Lin (2010) addressed the cultural appropriateness of common Western practices when working in groups, for instance, questioning ideas, opinions, conclusions and behaviours, and overt management of conflictual issues. Modification of Western team techniques and careful introduction of them to students from Confucian cultures were advised by Nguyen, Terlouwb and Pilota (2006) and Neuman and Bekerman (2000), while Simpson (2017) argued for thorough preparation for attaining the requisite academic and socio-cultural skills to take part in collaborative group work.

In particular, silence, reticence and seeming non-participation in the classroom have been described by some (Ballard & Clancy 1997; Hu 2002) in terms of learning deficits when compared to prevailing Western educational viewpoints. Expatriate lecturers in Hong Kong, for example, were frustrated by what they perceived as reluctance by their students to express opinions in class (Flowerdew & Miller 1995). Others (Grimshaw 2007; Watkins & Biggs 2001), however, saw these characteristics as beneficial to learning. Gudykunst and Mody (2002), for instance, described silence as a fundamental prerequisite for linguistic and cultural competence, and those who listened, observed, and restricted their verbal communication were considered wise and trustworthy in Chinese culture. Kennedy (2002) and Watkins and Biggs (1996), amongst others, also found evidence to suggest that adult Hong Kong Chinese learners, when given sufficient time to adjust, were receptive to adopting new learning styles in response to changes in learning contexts, teaching styles and modes of assessment.

Phan and Li’s (2014) qualitative exploration of silence in the classroom of ‘Me Generation’ (post-1980s-born) Chinese students, who had studied in both Chinese and Australian classrooms, was a pertinent example of changing characteristics and behaviours. Despite the common portrayal of being passive recipients and quiet learners,

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who appeared to be reluctant to adopt active roles in classroom discussion, their silence was found to have multiple connotations, including choice, right, and resistance, which those students actively utilised in their learning. Indeed, Cheng (2000) argued that causes of student behaviours were situation specific rather than being culturally predetermined, while Kubota and Lehner (2004) suggested that a more expansive range of issues beyond cultural difference would surface if researchers focused on individuals in context rather than only as part of a generalised cultural group.

Jin and Cortazzi (2011), Phan and Li (2014) and Ryan (2010) all contended, though, that a deficit-surplus depiction neither recognised wider environmental impacts such as internationalisation of higher education, the growing emphasis on quality assurance or trends in China’s educational reforms. Furthermore, as Chan (2010) identified, there was an increasing individual diversity and mobility exhibited by Chinese students, and Yang (2009) emphasised that their values were becoming more varied, less traditional, and more internationally orientated. Therefore, a broader range of insights can be gained from other approaches to foster greater understanding of the phenomenon of the Chinese learner such as appreciating and nurturing the social-cultural identity of learners both within and outside the classroom, and taking a more nuanced focus on the nature of power in the teacher-student relationship and its impacts on behaviours (Phan 2009; Singh 2009; Zhou, Knoke & Sakamoto 2005). Bao’s (2014) advice was to acknowledge these characteristics associated with Chinese learning styles not as a barrier, but as a valid foundation on which to build learning and facilitate teaching in internationalised classrooms. Thus, as Biggs (1996), Kember (1999) and Robinson (1988) had previously argued, the explanation for commonly accepted Chinese learning characteristics was clearly complex and could not be reduced to simplistic cultural stereotypes.

The above consideration of some of the common assumptions, perceptions and stereotypes about learners with a Confucian cultural heritage contributed to this study by establishing a basis to investigate participants’ preconceptions of offshore students’ characteristics and behaviours compared with their actual experiences in the classroom. Moreover, the review provided prompts to assist in eliciting interpretations of what

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factors participants believed contributed to the nature of their Chinese students, and to the subsequent impacts on the quality of offshore learning and teaching practices.