Both ENSO similarities and differences have been analyzed in the last three decades with numerous results pointing out the many dissimilarities of ENSO events, including their strength, onset time, phasing with the seasonal cycle, duration, eastward or westward propagation of SST anomalies in the equatorial band (e.g., Wang, 1995), and more recently the recent detection of a possible new type of El Niño (e.g., Larkin and Harrison, 2005a,b), referred to here as central Pacific (CP) El Niño events. In line with this, the aim of this chapter was to further contrast ENSO features in the tropical Pacific using SST, SSS and SL observations using different statistical methods. A parallel study was also conducted to contrast the different ENSO signatures using sea surface chlorophyll observations from satellite measurements.
Using singular EOF, combined regression-EOF and agglomerative hierarchical clustering (AHC) on SST, SSS and SL anomalies, we showed that the timing of what have been recently called the eastern Pacific (EP) and CP El Niño and La Niña events using each climate variable generally agree with each other. It should be noted, however, that differentiating clearly between EP and CP ENSO flavors is a difficult exercise, depending on the method used, and noting that some years may even be classified as “mixed” events (e.g., Kug et al., 2009; their Fig. 1). Of course, not all statistical methods may be appropriate
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The SST signature during EP and CP El Niño were briefly described in Chapter 1 using the 1982-83, 1997-98, 2002-03 and 2009-10 El Niño events as representative examples (see Fig.
1.5). We obtained basically the same signature using the different statistical methods outlined above, noting that the La Niña signature during EP and CP events are almost symmetrical to the El Niño events. In brief, the EP El Niño (La Niña) signature shows maximum anomalous warming (cooling) extending from the South American coast along the equator to the central Pacific region. In contrast, the CP El Niño (La Niña) signature has maximum anomalous warming (cooling) concentrated in the central Pacific flanked by weaker anomalies on either side of the maxima. These results are in agreement with previous studies using similar statistical analysis and/or datasets (e.g., Ashok et al., 2007; Leloup et al., 2007; Kao and Yu, 2009).
To somewhat paraphrase the results published in Singh et al. (2011), EP and CP El Niño (La Niña) events result in a SSS freshening (saltening) in the western half of the equatorial Pacific and a SSS increase (decrease) in the SPCZ mean area. The EP and CP El Niño events, however, have distinct quantitative SSS signatures. In the equatorial Pacific (say 2°S-2°N), EP El Niño events are characterized by a maximum SSS freshening (~-1 pss) near the dateline and a strong (~30° longitude) eastward displacements of the 34.8 pss isohaline materializing the eastern edge of the low-salinity warm pool waters. During CP El Niño events, the maximum SSS freshening is shifted westward by about 15° longitude and the eastward displacements of the 34.8 pss isohaline are only about half the EP El Niño amplitude. Kug et al. (2009) found similar differences between Warm Pool and Cold Tongue El Niño events (analogous to our CP and EP El Niño) in terms of SST, precipitation, atmospheric vertical motion and surface zonal wind anomalies: the anomalies are shifted to the west during Warm Pool El Niño compared to those associated with the Cold Tongue El Niño. This results in rather homogeneous SSS within 150°E-170°W during EP El Niño events, contrasting with non-homogeneous SSS between the western (150°E-170°E) and eastern (170°E-170°W) halves of the warm pool during CP El Niño events (with the western half being ~0.2 pss fresher). In the far western equatorial Pacific, results are also contrasted:
EP El Niño events result in a saltening, whereas CP El Niño in a freshening of the surface waters. Besides, in the SPCZ mean area, EP El Niño events are characterized by a well-marked increase (~+1 pss) in SSS, which is about 2-3 times less during CP El Niño events.
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(see Fig. 13 in Singh et al., 2011): one which can fairly well distinguish between EP and CP ENSO events (SSS ENSO Index) and another, which can also discriminate EP from CP El Niño events (SSS El Niño Index). These indices are only “indices” and so not 100% perfect.
As an example, in the above-noted figure, the discrepancy in the SSS El Niño Index in 2002-03 can be attributed to the fact that although the AHC procedure classifies the 2002-2002-03 El Niño as a CP El Niño, the location of the negative SSS anomaly in the equatorial western Pacific during 2002-03 is displaced further east of what the CP El Niño cluster shows. The location of the negative anomaly (only) agrees with that in the EP El Niño cluster, and thus the reason for the discrepancy in the SSS El Niño Index during 2002-03. Further studies on the evolution and termination of the 2002-03 El Niño can be found in the works of McPhaden (2004) and Vecchi and Harrison (2003), respectively. A detailed discussion on the main mechanisms responsible for the ENSO signatures in SSS can be found in Singh et al. (2011) at the end of this chapter.
The EP and CP ENSO signature in SLA is reminiscent of a zonal and meridional seesaw, respectively. During EP El Niño, the release of warm waters from the western to the eastern equatorial Pacific results in a reduced zonal thermocline slope leading to anomalous warming (cooling) in the eastern (western) half of the Pacific. This results in a zonal seesaw pattern in SLA pivoted around 180°. During EP La Niña, the strengthening of the trade winds allows for the buildup of warm waters in the far western Pacific and equatorial upwelling in the eastern Pacific, which results in a stronger thermocline slope and a zonal seesaw pattern opposite in sign to that during EP El Niño. In contrast, the CP El Niño (La Niña) signature in SLA indicates a recharge (discharge) of the equatorial band resulting in positive (negative) SLA almost over the entire equatorial region. Generally, the positive (negative) SLA during CP El Niño (La Niña) extends up to 15°S while it is mirrored by negative (positive) SLA north of around 5°N. This meridional seesaw pattern was also found in the study of Alory and Delcroix (2002) using multivariate EOF analysis and similar SLA data. A detailed analysis of these patterns and the mechanisms responsible are further discussed in Chapter 4.
As a final comment, there is no doubt that the mechanisms responsible for the different flavors of ENSO, as observed in many oceanic and atmospheric variables, need to be further
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of ENSO. Consequently, we believe appropriate to tentatively analyze the EP and CP signature of ENSO in terms of dynamics from ENSO theories. This is the next step in this project and which is addressed in the next chapter.