El Sistema electoral mexicano.

Climate change has the potential to undermine sustainable development, increase poverty, and delay or prevent the realization of the Millennium Development Goals. An effective way to address the impacts of climate change is by integrating adaptation measures into sustainable development strategies so as to reduce the pressure on natural resources, improve environmental risk management, and increase the social well-being of the poor. Climate change can influence humans directly, through impacts on health and the risk of extreme events on lives, livelihoods and human settlements, and indirectly, through impacts on food security and the viability of natural resource-based economic activity. The workshops and meeting discussed the impacts of climate change on achievement of the Millennium Goals in the different regions (Table V-6)_.

Competition for scarce resources, such as fresh water, land or fishing grounds, brought about by changes in climate, has the added potential to cause conflict over resources with impacts on the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals, and on human migration. For example, in Africa increased pressure on resources related to food and water insecurity can deepen tensions between communities and ethnic groups resulting in violence and war (Oxfam 2006, Sachs 2007).

As the incidence and magnitude of events such as droughts, floods and island inundation increase, there could be large- scale demographic responses, such as increased migration and threats to the sovereignty of some small island States. The United Nations University Institute for Environment and Human Security (UNU–EHS) reported in 2005 that there were at least 20 million “environmental refugees” worldwide, more than those displaced by war and political repression combined. UNU–EHS predicts that by 2010 the number of environmental refugees could grow to 50 million and, according to further estimates, there could be as many as 150 million by 2050 (Myers 2005). Considering that the adverse effects of climate change pose an additional burden to development goals, integrating adaptation into sustainable development is necessary, and is already being considered and implemented by some developing countries, although it is still in its early stages. Sustainable development in the context of climate change is a particular challenge for SIDS, particularly as they have been among the first to experience the direct effects of climate change. The Mauritius Strategy for

the Further Implementation of the Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States (Mauritius Strategy) outlines actions for the international community to help SIDS in addressing the threats posed by climate change. This includes actions for the development, transfer and dissemination of appropriate technologies and practices to address climate change; building and enhancing scientific and technological capabilities and enhancing the implementation of national, regional and international global atmospheric observing systems.

In the tourism sector, sustainable practices must be established, developed or promoted in synergy

with adaptation activities and work to protect biodiversity. Links and synergy must also be encouraged between the programmes of work on biodiversity and climate change under the two Conventions, in particular with regard to island biodiversity. Although many developing countries have ratified the Conventions, support is still needed from their development partners to ensure effective implementation of their emerging strategies and plans, as well as to fully exploit the opportunities that could be achieved.

At the adaptation workshops and expert meeting, synergy between the UNFCCC and the other two Rio Conventions, the Convention on Biological Diversity, and the UN Convention to Combat Desertification, was highlighted as important for implementing adaptation projects, sharing data collection and information networking. This would help integrate the Conventions into national development programmes, a problem encountered by many countries at present, and help establish synergies and linkages among the Conventions.

The Stern Review highlighted that the costs of strong and urgent action on climate change will be less than the costs thereby avoided of the impacts of climate change under business as usual (Stern 2006). All countries, rich and poor, need to adapt to climate change and this will be costly. Developing countries, already the hardest hit by climate change, have little capacity (both in human capacity and financial resources) to adapt. Spending to adapt to climate change will undermine funding for sustainable development, putting strong pressure on developing country budgets and overseas development assistance. It is therefore vital that ways and means are found to enable developing countries to enhance their efforts to adapt in the context of sustainable development and sustainable development must incorporate adaptation plans.

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ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE

UN FCCC CLIMATE CHANGE: IMPACTS, VULNERABILITIES AND ADAPTATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Table V-6. Impacts of Climate Change on the Millennium Development Goals

Source: Source: National communications of non-Annex I Parties and UNFCCC Sixth compilation and synthesis of initial national communications from Parties not included in Annex I to the

Convention. Note by the secretariat. Addendum 5. Climate change impacts, adaptation measures and response strategies

Goal 1

Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

Goal 2

Achieve universal primary education

Goal 3

Promote gender equality and empower women

Goal 4

Reduce child mortality

Goal 5

Improve Maternal Health

Goal 6

Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases

Goal 7

Ensure environmental sustainability

Goal 8

Develop a global partnership for development

– Damage to livelihood assets, including homes, water supply, health, and infrastructure, can undermine peoples’ ability to earn a living;

– Reduction of crop yields affects food security;

– Changes in natural systems and resources, infrastructure and labour productivity may reduce income opportunities and affect economic growth;

– Social tensions over resource use can lead to conflict, destabilising lives and livelihoods and forcing communities to migrate.

– Loss of livelihood assets and natural disasters reduce opportunities for full time education, more children (especially girls) are likely to be taken out of school to help fetch water, earn an income or care for ill family members;

– Malnourishment and illness reduces school attendance and the ability of children to learn when they are in class;

– Displacement and migration can reduce access to education.

– Exacerbation of gender inequality as women depend more on the natural environment for their livelihoods, including agricultural production. This may lead to increasingly poor health and less time to engage in decision making and earning additional income;

– Women and girls are typically the ones to care for the home and fetch water, fodder, firewood, and often food. During times of climate stress, they must cope with fewer resources and a greater workload; – Female headed households with few assets are particularly affected by climate related disasters. – Deaths and illness due to heat-waves, floods, droughts and hurricanes;

– Children and pregnant women are particularly susceptible to vector-borne diseases (e.g. malaria and dengue fever) and water-borne diseases (e.g. cholera and dysentery) which may increase and/or spread to new areas – e.g. anaemia resulting from malaria is currently responsible for one quarter of maternal mortality;

– Reduction in the quality and quantity of drinking water exacerbates malnutrition especially among children; – Natural disasters affect food security leading to increased malnutrition and famine, particularly in sub-Saharan

Africa.

– Water stress and warmer conditions encourage disease;

– Households affected by AIDS have lower livelihood assets, and malnutrition accelerates the negative effects of the disease.

– Alterations and possible irreversible damage in the quality and productivity of ecosystems and natural resources;

– Decrease in biodiversity and worsening of existing environmental degradation;

– Alterations in ecosystem-human interfaces and interactions lead to loss of biodiversity and loss of basic support systems for the livelihood of many people, particularly in Africa.

– Climate change is a global issue and a global challenge: responses require global cooperation, especially to help developing countries adapt to the adverse effects of climate change;

– International relations may be strained by climate impacts. Millennium Development Goal Potential impacts of climate change

ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE

UN FCCC CLIMATE CHANGE: IMPACTS, VULNERABILITIES AND ADAPTATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

There is a need to develop integrated, well planned and coordinated adaptation actions and adaptation projects, and to improve financial flows into adaptation-related activities through existing and new international, official development assistance and private sector mechanisms thus providing a firm basis for sustainable development.

5.6 ADAPTATION INTEGRATION INTO POLICY