Elaboración y presentación del Informe Final a contraparte MINSAL

Definition of IEQ in Office Work Environments

Based on Vischer’s (1989) definition, in work environments, environmental quality is “the

combination of environmental elements that interact with users of the environment to enable that environment to be the best possible one for the activities that go on in it.”

IEQ factors in Office Work Environments

The quality of the physical features in the work environment forms the IEQ factors of the physical work environment. Those IEQ factors have physical and non-physical traits. The physical IEQ factors are those that have an instrumental meaning. The non-physical IEQ factors are those that have a latent or symbolic meaning. In this research, a further classification is created, where the physical work environment is classified into three categories: (1) the Ambient Conditions, (2) the Designed Environment, and (3) the Behavioral

Environment. The Ambient Conditions and the Designed Environment encompass the

instrumental qualities, such as IAQ, Illumination, Thermal Comfort, Acoustics, Layout, and Spatial Organization. The Behavioral Environment represents the latent and symbolic qualities in the environment, such as Privacy, Territoriality, Control, Status, and Pride.

(i) IEQ in Relation to Ambient Conditions

Ambient Conditions in the office work environment encompass any quality that creates the atmosphere and environmental conditions of the space, such as illumination, air quality, thermal comfort, and sound. McCoy’s (1996) comprehensive review of previous post

occupancy evaluation (POE) studies showed that they are the most commonly-measured

features of the office environment. Nevertheless, occupants’ personal preferences and satisfaction with the Ambient Conditions may differ according to the tasks they are performing and their personal traits. However, Gerlach (1974) concluded that the control over

Ambient Conditions is what makes people most comfortable, and the lack of control over Ambient Conditions to suit individual comfort levels is likely to cause an increase in stress (Cohen, Evans, Stokols & Krantz, 2013).

(a) Illumination

Illumination is light that comes from the light sources, that can be classified into natural

and artificial light. The quality of illumination cannot be evaluated separately from the task requirements, where each type of activity requires different illumination specifications. Illumination quality may include the colour of the light source itself, the source type, the amount of luminance, and the position, distribution, and effectiveness of the lighting, while ultimately determining how well it suits the task required.

The quality of illumination in a space primarily affects the visual ability of occupants. However, behavioral outcomes are also found to be associated with lighting quality, such as task performance, mood, health, and safety, as well as aesthetical judgments (Veitch & Newsham, 1998). For example, flickers caused by fluorescent lamps have effects on visual performance, neural activity, saccadic eye movements, and reading ability (Kuller & Laike, 1998; Veitch & McColl, 1995; Veitch & Newsham, 1998). Inadequate lighting may also result in glare and shadows, further causing eyestrain and discomfort. Therefore, the quality of lighting may affect occupants’ physical and psychological health and well-being, as well as physical and functional comfort.

(b) Air Quality

Modern office buildings are commonly covered with curtain walls, and in many cases the windows are non-operable in an effort to save energy and suit the architectural image. This could compromise the IAQ if inadequate air ventilation systems are used. Offices also have printers and other materials that can release toxins into the air. Poor air quality is not only uncomfortable in the sense of stuffiness or odors, but it can be harmful and compromise occupants’ health, performance, and satisfaction. Sick building syndrome (SBS) and building

related illness (BRI) are common afflictions that an occupant could end up suffering from as a

result of the poor IAQ of buildings (Lindvall, 1992; Hedge, Burge, Robertson, Wilson, & Harris-Bass, 1989). Symptoms may include asthma, headaches, a runny nose, red irritated

eyes, itchiness and dryness of the skin, and a sore throat (Kemp, Dingle, & Neumeister, 1998). Such symptoms increase occupants’ psychological stress and hence can significantly affect the job satisfaction and work performance (McCoy, 2002).

(c) Thermal Comfort

Thermal comfort, or what is known as the effective temperature, is an index composed of

three indicators: air temperature, humidity, and air movement (Yaglou, 1927; McCoy, 2002). Other factors may also affect our feeling of thermal comfort, such as the activity level or work being done, the amount of clothing being worn, the time spent in the space, the age of the occupant, and the health of the occupant (McCoy, 2002).

(d) Sound

Sound is classified into desirable and unwanted/undesirable sound, where undesirable

sounds are called noise (Gifford, 2007). Noise from other people, ringing phones, mechanical systems, printers, and the street can be distracting and disturbing. Noise may affect occupants’ ability to focus on work and may influence their performance. It can also be tiring, causing health problems such as headaches and anxiety. Uncontrolled noise is considered a detrimental stressor that affects work performance (Brill, Weidemann, Alard, Olson, & Keable, 2001; Cohen et al., 2013). To the contrary, the Buffalo Organization for Social and Technological Innovation (BOSTI) studies reported that the technological advancements using highly absorptive ceilings, carpets, and panels, resulted in too little noise, which as well was a complaint to some occupants (Brill, 1997).

(ii) IEQ in the Designed Environment

The Designed Environment encompasses any IEQ factor that is related to the design of the space, such as Views, Personal Workspaces, Office Layout, Spatial Organization, Furniture and Ergonomics, and Architectonic Details. Some of these qualities are discussed below.

(a) Views

Views encompass both the quality of the scene viewed, as well as the opportunity of

accessing natural daylight with the benefit of engaging with the weather changes. It is evaluated in terms of scale and content (McCoy, 2000). Research on environment-behavior

has indicated that views may have several influences on people, such as health and well-being (Ulrich, 1984), symbol of status (a privilege) (Becker & Steele, 1995; Brill, Margulis, & Konar, 1984; Duffy, 1992), morale and environmental satisfaction (McCoy, 2000), and may also have a restorative value for stress at work (Heerwagen & Orians, 1990; Kaplan, Talbot, & Kaplan, 1988).

(b) Spatial Organization

Spatial organization involves size, shape, allocation, and division of office space; it is one

of the most important and most-researched features in the physical work environment. It is one of the major influential factors influencing occupants’ experience in their workspaces, as it may alter people’s feelings of the level of enclosure, proxemics, crowding, territoriality, privacy, control, variety and adaptability, flexibility and legibility, communication, and collaboration. It may also affect organizations’ efficiency and effectiveness, and even status. Traditionally the office location, furniture quality, and features represented the structure and hierarchy of the people working in the organization (McCoy, 2000).

The BOSTI did an extensive long-term study and research program in 80 different organizations, with a sample size of more than 13,000 office workers (Brill et al., 1984; Brill et al., 2001). The study measured the influence of the Physical Environment on Workers and Control Groups using a quasi-experimental research design. They manipulated the Physical (office) Environment by conducting pre- and post-test questionnaires. Features of the workspaces included the Physical Enclosure, Aesthetics, Privacy, Furniture, Status, communication, temperature control, and lighting. Results of the study showed that changes in the features of the Physical Environment affected Job Performance, Job Satisfaction, ease and quality of Communication, and Satisfaction with the environment. It also showed that Job Satisfaction and Job Performance had measurable economic influences on the organization.

McCoy (2000) performed an in-depth study on seven teams in office buildings. The study found that Spatial Organization and allocation supports occupants’ satisfaction and performance. It is also significant with team collaboration and communication. Also, it encourages social activities, such as informal communication and extended collaboration that in turn help in higher levels of creativity and performance.

Figure 1. Examples of different spatial organization

Source: found on Google images.com, all pictures are labeled for reuse.

One of the significant qualities in regards to the organization of space involve where the resources are located and how accessible they are. Resources in the workplace may include equipment, facilities, people, and funds (Amabile, 1988, 1993). Adequate access to resources can save time and frustration, making the work process more efficient and less stressful. In turn, that may affect work productivity and employees’ job satisfaction, thereby improving

their QoL experience. In the interviews of office workers done by Amabile (1988, 1993) 52% of the respondents stated that access to resources was very important to them—in comparison to the other nine qualities encouraging creative teamwork. Furthermore, the BOSTI report suggests that the office should be reconceptualized as a tool and not as a place to house tools (Brill et al., 1984).

(c) Architectonic Details

Architectonic details represent the decorations, artworks, artifacts, use of style, colour,

ornaments, and so on. Architectonic details are rarely studied in research on the physical work environment. However, Becker and Steele (1995) suggest that they may support occupants’ sense of identity and purpose. They consider the idea that displaying such details may act as a

non-verbal communication system, conveying different messages of status, identity,

organizational history, and organizational expectations. The Bosti’s report also indicates that the image or appearance of the environment may reflect values and norms of the organization and employees (Brill et al., 1984). Thus, architectonic details can provide valuable symbolic qualities that play a role in supporting the social dimension of sustainability by fulfilling occupants’ social and cultural needs, hence improving their QoL.

(iii) IEQ in the Behavioral Environment

The Behavioral Environment encompasses any feature or IEQ factor related to occupants’ social, psychological, or cultural aspects. Examples include Personalization, Territoriality, Personal Space, Wayfinding, Control, Status, and Pride. They may occur from the features of the physical work environment, which belong in either the Ambient or the Designed Environments. For example, architectonic details are part of the features in the Designed Environment, but their quality influences the IEQ factors in the Behavioral Environment because they convey a symbolic meaning to environmental quality. Other features of the designed space, such as heights of partitions, the organization of space, views, and desk locations can have impacts on IEQ factors in the Behavioral Environment, such as privacy, crowding, and territoriality.

(a) Territoriality

Territoriality is a non-verbal type of communication used to claim ownership and control.

There are several psychological definitions for it, and most of them stress that behavior and cognition are both involved in territoriality when related to a place (Gifford, 2007).

A working definition offered by Gifford, (2007) states, “Territoriality is a pattern of

behavior and attitudes held by an individual or group that is based on perceived, attempted, or actual control of a definable physical space, object, or idea that may involve habitual occupation, defense, personalization, and marking6 _{of it.” For example, putting a fence}

around one’s house is an act of territoriality. In work environments, the use of personal items (personalization) and furniture can be used to indicate possessiveness and territoriality of the workspace.

(b) Personalization

“Personalization means marking in a manner that indicates one’s identity” (Baumeister & Vohs, 2007). Simply put, it means to use personal items. Personalization of space and self- expression is performed to indicate and support individual and group identity, territoriality, environmental stimulation, and symbolizes place commitment and purpose; in the end, that is correlated with environmental and job satisfaction (Brill et al., 1984). A McCoy study in 2000 also found that personalization was more related to highly creative teamwork, where artifacts were more likely used to set team goals and achievements.

Figure 2. Examples of workspace personalization by using personal photos, pictures and artifacts.

Source: found on Google images.com, all pictures are labeled for reuse.

6 _{“Marking means placing an object or substance in a space to indicate one’s territorial intentions.” (Gifford,}

(c) Wayfinding

Wayfinding refers to the systems used to give information and guide people through a

physical environment. Those systems facilitate the understanding and navigation inside buildings. It makes occupants’ experience easier, especially in complex public buildings such office buildings and hospitals. According to Downs & Stea (1973) wayfinding has four stages, namely orientation, route decision, route monitoring, and destination recognition. Signs, colours, patterns, and artificial lighting are used for wayfinding (see Figure 3 and Figure 4).

Figure 3. Wayfinding signs, patterns, and colours.

Figure 4. Kaiser Permanente Orchard Medical Office, in Downey, CA, USA Janet Rhee, DLR Group WWCOT Interiors

Source: found on http://www.armstrong.com/commflooringna/Kaiser-case-study.html

(d) Crowding

Crowding is a psychological feeling perceived due to a lack of enough space and that

things are jammed. It is different than density, which can be measured, and depends on the physical number of subjects and space available for them. Crowding is defined as the negative affect toward perceived density (Eroglu & Machleit, 1990). Kalb and Keating (1981) conducted a study to test the difference between the feeling of crowding and the environmental rating of crowding (as perceived by subjects). The study found that the two measures are different. The feel of crowding is more related to perceived density and people’s behavioral experience, such as stressfulness, self-perceived hindrance, restriction, and confinement. The rating of crowding was related to the perceived density and general negative affect. The feel of crowding relates more related to changes in the physical density than in the rating of environmental crowding.