kom, 2012). The smartphone, however, is just one as- pect of a much larger and more consequential phenom- enon that we call the “popularization of equipment.” This term refers to both the short innovation cycles and the explosive growth of the entertainment elec- tronics sector in the last decade. It turns out that the miniaturization of equipment such as mobile phones, cameras, and laptops has reduced the consumption of materials per unit and thus made resource use more efficient. This positive effect, however, is obliterated by a rebound effect as the huge number of units leads to higher resource consumption on the whole (cf. Santar- ius, 2012). A secondary rebound effect can be observed where a technology requires extremely pure materials (cf. Reller, 2013, p.185). The popularization of consum- er goods seems to amount to a tertiary rebound effect: the exploitation of primary resources increases further; the quality of substances used for production becomes more specific, more diversified, and more energy-in- tensive; and the dissipation of strategic resources ac- celerates because of their swift proliferation around the globe (ibid.). A smartphone, for example, requires some 40 different metals, from cobalt to tantalum, rare earth metals, copper, and nickel all the way to silver and gold. While each individual cell phone only contains a few milligrams of rare metals, these add up to a large over- all sum: a ton of scrap cell phones contains more silver than can be extracted from a ton of ore (on average, 250 grams per ton of rock extracted). By now, the procedure called urban mining – the use of secondary raw materi- als – is often more profitable than “primary” mining.
It is time, therefore, to widen our concept of mobi- lization so that it encompasses a cyclical economy able to keep resources that have already been extracted “mobile”: to make them available for continual reuse. In the face of global population growth and finite re- sources, it is of the utmost social, economic, and eco- logical importance to rethink our handling of resources, to move from wasting resources to using them. It must be our aim to secure the availability of resources now and in the future. We need to preserve resources, en- hance efficiency, and institute a cyclical economy, all the while paying attention to distributive and intergen- erational justice. The cultural (re-) appropriation of cy- clical processes found in nature is probably one of the biggest challenges faced by high-tech modernity.
The list of “tasks” we have to undertake, in any case, is long. Technical and consumptive processes and
products need to be designed in a way that the sub- stances used for them can be recovered and used as secondary resources. To this end, recycling needs to be part of the planning process from the stage of product design onward; existing recovery logistics need to be improved with regard to economic and ecological re- sponsibility and feasibility; industry and politics need to advance resource-efficient systems such as leasing and deposit networks.
All of this, however, depends on finding a solution to a technical problem: we need to find a way to re- duce the variety of materials in high-tech products (c.f. Hagelüken, 2013). As indicated above, rare metals are used, in infinite quantities, for the construction of such products and thus carry a high dissipation risk. Sub- stances like indium, germanium, and gallium are some- times vapor-deposited onto other substances in such a wafer-thin manner that they cannot be recovered in an economical manner at the moment. Both the industry and the sciences are researching appropriate dissolu- tion procedures. The Fraunhofer Project Group Materials
Recycling and Resource Strategies IWKS, for example, is
working on innovative concepts for such issues as recy- cling, material flows, waste, and resources in coopera- tion with industrial partners.
9.6
Outlook: Knowledge as Key
Climate change, the destruction of rainforests, the ex- tinction of species, soil erosion, the pollution of water, air, and land, among many others: mankind has put massive pressure on the global ecosystem through its lifestyle, its consumption habits, and its resource and energy waste. Underneath this problem is what we might call the liberal dilemma: the individual actions that lead to a resource-intensive lifestyle are neither legally nor morally problematic in themselves. It is only the sum of their aggregate consequences that creates grave problems (Huppenbauer, 2013, p. 177). Against this background, the ethicist Markus Huppenbauer (ibid.) regards the proliferation of resource-oriented virtues16 as the central prerequisite for reaching spe-
16 The concept of sufficiency is frequently discussed in this context. For a synopsis see Oliver Stengel (2013).
9.7 References and further reading
cific social and environmental goals. Such virtues, he suggests, will disburden the individual actor from con- tinually having to reflect on the actions demanded in certain situations.
Of course, laws cannot prescribe virtuous and re- sponsible behavior. Huppenbauer puts his hopes on a long-term reflection and education process. Material histories, for instance, are an excellent tool for foster- ing resource-oriented virtues. Their charm lies in their direct relevance for the individual reader. They begin with the jeans he is wearing or the coffee he drinks. In the final analysis, however, material histories are just one of many instruments and opportunities for spread- ing information about the responsible use of our plan- et and its resources. These very resources, by virtue of the electronic products made from them, enable us to acquire knowledge as quickly and as flexibly as never before. And knowledge, after all, is the most fascinating resource of all: the only resource that increases when used.
This contribution was made possible by financial support from the Bavarian State Ministry for Education, Cultural Affairs, Science, and the Arts, via the research training unit “Resource Strategy Concepts for Sustainable Energy Sys- tems.”
9.7
References and further reading
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Achzet, B.; Reller, A.; Rennie, C.; Simmons, J.; Zepf, V. (2011): Materials Critical to the Energy Industry. An Introduction. Augsburg.
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9.7 References and further reading
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9.7 References and further reading
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10.1 Introduction