Elementos que intervienen en el modelo

In acknowledging the psycho-physiological aspect of sports performance it is important to view performance in both absolute and relative terms (Gee, 2010). Absolute performance refers to the maximum an athlete can achieve. The optimal absolute output is believed to be directly related to physiological composition which is heavily shaped through genetic factors but is to some extent trainable through conditioning work. Such examples would include muscle composition and architecture, body height and mass, and aerobic and anaerobic capacity. These factors determine the maximal possible output for an individual athlete. Conversely relative performance accounts for fleeting variances.

Despite the theoretical concept of absolute performance reflects a maximal output, relative performance considers impeding factors, for example environmental conditions, one key element which regulates the relative performance of an individual athlete is the cognitions of the athlete (Gee, 2010). It should be recognised that through the psychological conditioning of athletes, the aim is to achieve the smallest difference between absolute and relative performances.

54 1.14. Psychology use in Training

During training, an athlete aims to improve performance by practicing to improve transfer into a competitive environment (Frey et al., 2003). Therefore, the high dependence upon cognitive skills in competition suggests that there should be an equivalent use in practice. It is recognised that utilising cognitive techniques in practice, as opposed to exclusively in competitions, prevents detrimental performance resulting from using unfamiliar mental strategies (Weinberg & Williams, 1998). Furthermore, the incorporation of psychological skill in both practice and competition was observed to differentiate between medallists and non-medallist Olympians in the 2000 Olympic games (Taylor et al., 2008). Furthermore, the use of psychological techniques in training was found to be linked to the most successful performers in both the 1984 Olympic Games (Orlick & Partington, 1988) and touring golf professionals (McCaffrey & Orlick, 1989). Moreover, athletes may spend 99% of their time in practice compared to competition (McCann, 1995), emphasising the importance of practice. Additionally, the generalised schema theory (Schmidt, 1975) presents the need for cognitive processes such as self-talk and mental imagery when learning a skill.

In concurrence with the idea that performance can be improved through prescribed psychological interventions in practice environments, Weinberg and Comer (1994) found that psychological interventions improved performance in 85% of the studies reviewed. Additionally, studies have examined sport and position-specific psychological skills and strategies. In support of Taylors‘ (1995) conceptual framework, Thelwell et al., (2006) found that specific training

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comprising of relaxation, imagery, and self-talk elicited small, albeit varying, levels of improvement between participants.

Preliminary work by Thomas et al. (1999) and subsequent validation and refinement (Lane et al., 2004; Hardy et al., 2010b) has identified and analysed the most prevalent strategies used in both practice and competition. In developing the Test of Performance Strategies, a commonly used psychological test (Weinberg & Gould, 2010a), Thomas et al. (1999) identified eight prevailing psychological strategies used by athletes during competition. These comprised: imagery, self- talk, relaxation, activation, goal setting, negative thinking, emotional control, and automaticity. Similarly, these skills are prevalent in practice with the exception of negative thinking, replaced by attentional control, hence supporting the notion that psychological skills developed through practice are transferred to competition (Weinberg & Williams, 1998; Frey et al., 2003).

Despite identifying skill prevalence in both competition and training (Thomas et al., 1999) it must be considered that there is broad variation in what an individual may perceive as important (Seiler, 1992). Therefore depending on individual differences, perceptions regarding effectiveness, and sport requirements (Taylor, 1995), there will be differences in the strategies employed. Nonetheless, supporting the development of the Test of Performance Strategies (Thomas et al., 1999), there is a consensus within the applied sport psychology profession that important areas are goal setting, regulating arousal imagery, relaxation and self- talk (Gould et al., 1989; Gould et al., 2002). These specific strategies concur with early research with sports coaches that mental toughness, emotional regulation

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and concentration are important factors, whilst indicating a desire to implement regulatory strategies and concentration boosting techniques (Gould et al., 1987a).

Early research (Gould et al., 1987a; Gould et al., 1989) resulted in a proposed two-tier structure for mental training in which higher order elements such as arousal, control, preparatory strategies, leadership, and confidence are regulated through various second-order elements comprising relaxation, imagery, reinforcement, self-talk, goal setting and attentional focussing (Howe, 1993). The proposed second tier skills can be used alone or in conjunction to benefit the first order themes. Such a two-tier model is in concurrence with specific recommendations for strength coaches. Holloway (1994, 1995) and Mellalieu and Shearer (2012) suggested that it would be beneficial for strength and conditioning specialists to apply key psychological strategies such as imagery, goal setting, arousal regulation, and self-talk to their clients‘ individualised programmes.

Despite the exploration of the characteristics and development of successful athletes (Gould et al., 2002) and strategies differentiating between levels of success (Mahoney et al., 1987; Gould et al., 1999a; Gould et al., 2002; Taylor et al., 2008) there is little focus within strength and conditioning on the specific inclusion of second-tier psychological strategies used to develop the skills demonstrated, nor the rationale for employing such strategies with little attention provided to the potential influence of differing disciplines.

The nature of the discipline will shape the type of strategies that are employed, for example, explosive actions compared to endurance performances

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and fine motor skills (e.g. archery) compared to gross motor skills (e.g. power lifting), whilst the duration of the task and the intervals between activities will significantly impact the method of psychological preparation (Taylor, 1995). Thus, particular psychological strategies may be more pertinent to certain sports. This would be an important consideration for strength and conditioning coaches who work with varying athletic disciplines and provide instruction for various training activities (Ebben & Blackard, 2001; Massey et al., 2002; Ebben et al., 2004; Massey et al., 2004; Ebben et al., 2005; Duehring et al., 2009; Massey et al., 2009; Duehring & Ebben, 2010; Tod et al., 2012).

Schnabel et al. (2008, cited in Birrer and Morgan, 2010) proposed a model to categorize the most salient demands of a particular sport. Similar to the work of Taylor (1995), the initial model took account of duration, intensity and continuity of the impact; task variability and complexity; movement patterns and complexity; and cooperation (Schnabel et al., 2008, cited in Birrer and Morgan, 2010) with the subsequent addition of training scope, intensity and duration; psychosocial development; and the risk of injury and death (Birrer & Morgan, 2010). On the basis of the sport demands, the psychological skills required are hypothesised to be attention, motivation, volition, arousal regulation perceptual cognitive function, motor control, personal development, life skills, coping skills, communication, leadership and recovery skills (Birrer & Morgan, 2010).

Clearly the varying sport demands that a strength and conditioning professional may witness result in a complex role in applying psychological skills and strategies within training situations and is a much unexplored research area.

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Figure 1.1 Potential Psychological skills to cope with the psychological requirements for world class sport and the psychological techniques to develop them (Birrer and Morgan, 2010, adapted for Schnabel et al. 2008)

59 1.15. Aim and Objectives

The aim of the thesis is to examine the use of, and perceptions towards, psychological skills by strength and conditioning practitioners. This will be conducted using a multi-faceted approach centred on the experiences of the strength and conditioning practitioners themselves.

The body of research aims to quantify the frequency with which strength and conditioning practitioners are currently using psychological skills and strategies within applied practice. The research will then shift to a naturalistic approach to explore the perceived responsibilities of the practitioners and the specific detail concerning how strength and conditioning coaches apply psychological interventions with the ambition to develop a model of the most commonly used techniques.

The thesis will offer an experimental laboratory-based study to demonstrate the effectiveness of a psychological intervention identified within the present research. Furthermore the thesis will explore the preventative factors inhibiting the use of psychological interventions and seek to identify recommendations for practice. The research will conclude with the provision of applied recommendations for the strength and conditioning practitioners.

60 1.16. Summary of Objectives

 Determine the frequency of psychological skills and strategies use by strength and conditioning practitioners

 Determine the most important psychological factors within strength and conditioning

 Explore the methods in which strength and condition practitioners employ psychological strategies

 Experimentally determine the effectiveness of the use of goal setting and misinformation to manipulate lifting performance

 Examine the perceived role of the strength and conditioning coach with respect to psychological responsibilities

 Determine who is the main provider of psychological support from the viewpoint of the strength and conditioning coach

 Examine perceived barriers to the use of psychological strategies within strength and conditioning

 Explore the knowledge base from which the psychological practice of strength and conditioning coaches originates

 Provide applied recommendations concerning the use of psychology within strength and conditioning

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