Elementos de la Metodología

A review of the literature shows that different stakeholders have different perceptions of employment attributes. However, there is common agreement between them that educators have failed in preparing work-ready graduates. To help rectify this, universities are striving to incorporate graduate attributes into the curriculum in order to meet the requirements of the profession and industry. The nature and scope of the attributes and

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skills required for successful employment are continually debated as different stakeholders adopt different views.

According to the International Federation of Accountants’ Revised International Education Standard (IES 5 2011), titled ‘Practical Experience Requirements for Aspiring Professional Accountants’, professional accountants should gain practical experience before their qualification. The Professional Accreditation Guidelines for Higher Education programs from the accounting professional bodies, including the ICAA and CPA in Australia, expect graduates from diverse backgrounds to possess a range of abilities, in addition to personal attributes and interpersonal skills.

It is important to note that the composition of attributes is being continually reviewed and updated. For example, Jackson (2014b) limited the range of required skills to 10 criteria, calling these employment skills. CPA Australia and the ICAA reviewed the multidimensional grading to only five in their International Accreditation Guidelines for Australian Accounting degrees (ICAA & CPA Australia 2012). The guidelines took into account Hancock et al.’s recommendations, summarising the extensive range of desired graduate attributes into five areas: judgement, knowledge, application skills, communication and teamwork, and self-management (Hancock et al. 2009). However, students experience a “reality shock” when they first enter the workplace (Bui & Porter 2010, p. 37). This suggests that the graduate attributes attained might not be adequate upon commencing employment.

The issue is, however, complicated, as some agree that skills and attributes may not be the most critical features that employers expect from accounting graduates. For example, Kim et al. (1993) and Tymon (2011) found that the criteria most highly rated by employers in recruiting accounting graduates are job interest and motivation, which are reflected in a student’s self-efficacy.

Like other industries, the role of an accountant is continually changing to reflect developments in the workplace (Blewitt 2003; Jones & Abrahams 2007; Jackson 2014b). Accountants are expected to adopt the employer-driven values of an organisation, leading and accepting change to enhance the profitability and sustainability of the business (Jackson & Lapsley 2003). The Business Council of Australia (2011) emphasised that higher education is one of the main determinants of economic success, as most employment positions (56%) require diploma and degree qualifications. Therefore, the

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effectiveness and relevance of higher education and training is becoming more important since workplaces change significantly in response to changes in the national and global economy.

According to Bui and Porter (2010), employers of large accounting firms believe that although universities should have a focus on conceptual and theoretical knowledge, particular importance should be placed on developing analytical, critical and creative thinking skills, as well as oral presentation and writing skills. With respect to technical accounting skills, these could best be achieved by firms via practical training.

In contrast, medium and small accounting firms expect graduates to possess both good technical skills and good interpersonal skills. The research literature shows that all employers, regardless of the size of the firm, prefer graduates with a set of well-developed skills and attributes (Leggett et al. 2004; Crebert et al. 2004b; Keneley & Jackling 2011). This has led to a common view in the academic literature that strong disciplinary knowledge is no longer sufficient to guarantee a new graduate accounting employment (Harvey 1999; ACNielsen Research Services 2000; Crebert et al. 2004a; Pitman & Broomhall 2010). Consequently, employers believe in the importance of higher education institutions delivering graduate attributes (Bui & Porter 2010; Stoner & Milner 2010). Furthermore, Metrejean et al. (2008) examined the perception of recruiters of American accounting students, with respect to whether they saw any differences between students with undergraduate degrees compared to those with a master’s degree in accounting. The researchers found that the students’ qualification level was not a critical factor. However, they confirmed the results observed earlier by Hardin and Stocks (1995), that an important criterion for recruiters is career aspiration. Evans (2008) shared a view adopted by accounting professional bodies in the United Kingdom (UK), which is that knowledge and skills acquisition in a university is an important step in their professionalisation project.

In addition, employers overwhelmingly emphasise the need for graduates to be able to perform in the workplace (Crebert et al. 2004a). Graduates are expected to be confident communicators, good team players, critical thinkers, and problem solvers. In addition, they should have the ability to respond to changes and adjust to varying environments. Moreover, as Crebert et al. (2004a) noted, it is inevitable that, over time, the list of required skills and attributes will grow longer and more complicated.

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Several studies, such as Atkins (1999) and Bennett et al. (2000), found that employer group attitudes to universities are influenced strongly by highly context-bound interpretations of desirable graduate attributes or capabilities. Other studies show that it is unrealistic for a university to guarantee that its graduates will possess all the desirable generic skills and attributes defined in a university’s policy. Arguably, it is reasonable to expect that a university should guarantee that its students have the opportunity to learn and develop attributes during their undergraduate study (Crebert et al. 2004b). Whether these attributes are in line with the expectations of employers is another question. Among the important findings of Crebert et al. (2004b) is the fact that almost 80% of the graduates studied agreed that they had the opportunity to develop work-related skills while studying in university. However, students still expressed the need for work placement, greater practical focus in undergraduate courses, more oral presentations, written assignments, leadership training and case studies. Furthermore, Crebert et al. (2004b) add that the majority of graduates felt that teachers made them aware of the importance of graduate attributes and required abilities.

Similarly, the empirical evidence obtained by Simons et al. (1995) and Ameen et al. (2000), showed that accounting students overall demonstrate higher communication skills than other business course students. The cognitive abilities of accounting students are also perceived to be higher than those of students of other disciplines (Sander & Reding 1993), despite the indication that small firms prefer students of average intelligence who are “hard-working and tolerant to repetitive work assignments” (Bui & Porter 2010, p. 35). Academics, on the other hand, perceive the industry and accounting professions’ expectations as unrealistic and somewhat unjustified (Watty 2005; Jones & Abrahams 2007). Here, accounting firms are seen by academics as too demanding in their requirements of graduate competencies (Bui & Porter 2010).

Many studies provide evidence of contrasting views among stakeholders. For example, Jones and Abrahams (2007) argued that accounting practitioners emphasise the importance of strong discipline-based skills and the behavioral attitudes of graduates, whereas from an employer’s point of view, the high quality of well-developed analytical and interpersonal abilities is as important. In contrast, arguably, academics place a greater emphasis on students’ grades and ability to learn.

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Furthermore, the key finding in Bui and Porter (2010) was the identification of a significant gap in the types and level of skills expected from graduates by employers and accounting educators. The research showed that most educators believe in developing thinking skills and intellectual capabilities in students, although employers did not view analytical and thinking abilities as the most important. Instead, employers placed high value on student personalities that accord with their workplace culture and demonstrate potential for continuous learning. This implies the importance of students’ personal characteristics, including self-efficacy, from the perspective of employers.

Researchers however share the view that practical accounting training is much better provided and taught within the firm, rather than at university, and it is a reasonable expectation for HE to provide work-related training at the actual workplace (Bui & Porter 2010; Smith et al. 2010). Such an approach enables accounting students to gain work- related expertise and to improve their required skills and attributes.

Further, Jackson (2013) studied factors that influenced the employment outcomes of Australian graduates using national data gathered in 2011, via a logistic regression model. Jackson found that the employers’ concept of employment assumes technical expertise, proficient generic skills and a well-formed graduate identity. The study concluded that employment assumes more than employer choices, but it questions whether it includes the condition of the labour market and whether there are job opportunities for graduates. Moreover, as Bui and Porter (2010) revealed, practicing accounting educators seem to be prone towards the practitioners’ expectations when teaching. This, in turn, implies that the broader use of practitioners could lead to reducing the expectation gap between academic and accounting professional points of view in terms of the quality of accounting graduates.