Elementos de la red

Television content analyses are a frequently utilised method of investigating the types of messages and imagery presented to audiences through advertising and

programming. Kaufman’s (1980) content analysis of American television is one such example (see Appendix 6). Kaufman (1980) has taken an all-inclusive approach that encompasses food and eating behaviours in programme content including:

• Describing the characters involved,

• Scene location,

• Eating environment,

• Type of food consumed,

• Apparent emotions expressed,

• Any specific food related or body image-related comments, as well as,

• Analysing commercial content.

This in depth analysis is particularly significant and unique, as Kaufman (1980) is one of few authors who have researched so thoroughly in this manner. However, her study is now dated; changes that have occurred in society over the past two decades and the current concern over the increasing prevalence of obesity suggest that there is a need for new research in this area.

Kaufman’s (1980) study of American television commercials and programming revealed that the television “diet” is weighted heavily toward the consumption of perceived “low-nutrition” foods and features behaviours which are inconsistent with the generally agreed on principles of sound nutrition. Desserts, sweets, and sugar-based beverages comprised a large proportion of the television programming diet. Television characters were often seen eating between meal snacks, eating to satisfy social and psychological needs, eating “on the go”, eating to reward or punish themselves and consuming alcoholic drinks.

Kaufman’s research (1980) included both programme content and commercial content, seeking to identify, analyse and describe messages and imagery, relating to food, eating behaviour and body image presented on prime time American television. Kaufman (1980) found that there were more food

references during programming than in commercials. The foods shown were primarily beverages (31%, of which 8% were alcoholic drinks) and although fruit and vegetables were more than three times more likely to appear in commercials than in programme content, the preponderance of “low-nutrition” food both in commercials and programmes was evident. Characters were usually happy in the presence of food; rarely dined alone, snacked often, and frequently food was primarily used for social and emotional purposes such as to bribe others or to bring about social introductions (Kaufman, 1980). Furthermore characters were rarely depicted as being obese or overweight despite the fact that the patterns of food choice and eating behaviours were those often associated with nutrition and weight control problems (Kaufman, 1980). Kaufman (1980) concluded that television presented conflicting messages and imagery about diet, health and body image.

Television content analysis studies conducted since 1980 (see for example Story & Faulkner, 1990; Kunkel & Gantz, 1992; Kotz & Story, 1994; Taras & Gage, 1995; Avery, Mathios, Shanahan & Bisogni, 1997; Hill & Radimer, 1997; Byrd-Bredbenner & Grasso, 1999; and Tseng, 2001) have also provided similar evidence to suggest that a large proportion of television advertising is related to the promotion of foods high in fat and sugar and that the foods presented on television exemplify poor nutritional practices.

However these studies are not without limitations: some authors studied only children's weekend programming excluding weekday and prime time viewing (Story & Faulkner, 1990; Kotz & Story, 1994; Tseng, 2001). Others studied advertisements only without reviewing the programme content (Byrd- Bredbenner & Grasso, 1999; Hill & Radimer, 1997; Taras & Gage, 1995; Tseng, 2001). Several studies focussed on the contents of the other advertisements such as toys, a select range of foods, or categorised foods into broad, simple categories (Kotz & Story, 1994; Tseng, 2001). Furthermore, television content analyses studies dating back to the 1980s and 1990s no

longer reflect the attitudes and behaviours of the current media environment (e.g. the nature and content of television programmes and advertisements has changed).

Documented content analyses relating to New Zealand media are limited. Wilson, Quigley & Mansoor (1999) analysed advertisements using a similar methodology to the current study. This consisted of recording advertisements during one week periods, covering weekday time slots of 3:30pm - 6:30pm, and weekend mornings from 8am to 11am, with the intention of examining the nutritional quality of food in television food advertisements targeted at children. The advertised foods were then assessed as a diet. Whilst the study concluded that if children ate only the advertised foods they would be consuming a diet too high in fat, protein, free sugars and sodium, the authors (Wilson et al., 1999, p.648) recognise that "the creation of an ‘advertised diet’ out of foods advertised is a hypothetical construct that is unlikely to reflect the average child’s diet". However, the study does provide a basis for comparing advertising patterns over time. Wilson et al. (1999) comment that cultural attitudes influencing parents, individual tastes of parents and children, and levels of energy expenditure are also likely to play a rôle in eating patterns and behaviours. Additionally, the study did not include any programme content or analysis of eating episodes, situations, locations or behaviours.

Similarly, Hammond, Wylie & Casswell (1999) examined the extent to which New Zealanders aged between nine and seventeen were exposed to advertising of different food groups. The results showed that the majority of food they were exposed to was sweet snacks, soft drinks, fast food/takeaways and breakfast cereals. These results were compared to an Australian study and a thirteen- country study, which showed similar patterns. However, this study is likely to have been limited by similar factors to the Wilson et al. (1999) study of cultural attitudes, individual tastes, energy expenditure, which also did not include programme content.