Elementos de reflexión sobre el aprendizaje de las matemáticas y el pensamiento métrico

Blythe (2008:259) highlighted the excessive rationality of the Dewey model and argued that “life is simply too busy to spend much time agonising over which brand of biscuit to buy”. However, despite criticism, the process depicted in the Dewey model has been adopted by numerous researchers within their unique consumer behaviour models. Some researchers have added to the Dewey model by proposing a consumer decision process that involves seven steps (Blythe, 2014):

1. recognition of need, 2. information search,

3. pre-purchase evaluation of alternatives, 4. purchase,

5. consumption,

6. post-consumption evaluation, and 7. divestment (e.g. disposal) (Blythe, 2008)

In contrast, researchers such as Lamb, Hair, McDaniel, Boshoff and Terblanche (2008) and Schiffman and Kanuk (2015) advocated a model that is similar to the one presented by Dewey. Lamb et al. (2008) described a broader consumer behaviour model where various social and individual factors and the purchase situation are viewed as important influencers of the decision-making process. Embedded in the consumer behaviour model, they propose a simplified five-step consumer decision-making process that was adapted from the early work by Dewey, the 1996 work of Perreault and McCarthy, and the 1998 contributions of Lamb et al.. The five steps are similar to those included in the Dewey model and are adopted for this study:

1. recognition of need, 2. information search, 3. evaluation of alternatives 4. purchase

5. post-purchase behaviour (encompassing consumption, post-consumption evaluation and divestment (e.g. disposal)

The consumer decision-making process is relevant to CARE. The strategy depends on consumer purchases to generate donations (Lafferty & Edmondson, 2009), which means that purchasing a cause-linked product is preceded by need recognition, information search and

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alternative evaluation, and followed by post-purchase behaviour. In CARE, need recognition may arise from the need for a product, but also the need to contribute to a worthy cause. Consequently, the information required may also pertain to the product, the cause included in the campaign and/or other campaign details such as donation magnitude. As mentioned in Chapter 3, research has indicated that consumers prefer cause-linked brands when having to choose between various options (Barone et al., 2000). It can thus be inferred that CARE contributes favourably to the consumer’s consideration of the cause-linked product when alternatives are evaluated. In terms of post-purchase behaviour, CARE may have the ability to affirm the purchase by enhancing social identity and self-concept, and by decreasing guilt and cognitive dissonance (Chang, 2011). The consumer decision process varies across different types of decision-making as consumers do not treat all purchase decisions equally. As discussed in Chapter 4, routine, limited and extensive decision-making can be discerned.

Limited decision-making lies between routine and extensive decision-making. Routine response behaviour is typically associated with low involvement products and peripheral- route processing, whilst extensive decision-making is most often found with high involvement products where central route processing takes place (Sirakaya & Woodside, 2005). These types of consumer decision processes were discussed in Chapter 4, in conjunction with the Elaboration Likelihood Model, when the involvement paradigm was introduced.

As indicated in Chapter 4, routine decision-making is signified by low involvement, minimal time required, low product costs, very limited information search and often the availability of only a few alternatives. In contrast, extensive decision-making is characterised by high involvement, a lot of time required, high product costs, extensive information search and often the availability of several alternatives.

The type of decision applicable to a scenario will determine the level of consumer effort exerted when making a CARE decision. It will also determine the level and nature of influence exerted by the internal and external factors that affect consumer decision-making (Lamb et al., 2010).

5.4 BEHAVIOURAL INTENTIONS

Intention is viewed as an important construct due to its central role as antecedent of actual behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). It is defined as “a determination [or willingness] to act in a certain way” (Bagozzi, Baumgartner & Yi, 1989:36; Ajzen, 1985). Intention is assumed to be the

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direct precursor of behaviour (Ajzen, 2002) and has been used to predict an array of behaviours (Sheeran, 2002:3). Examples pertaining to the world of business and marketing include internet banking (Nasri & Charfeddine, 2012); Facebook continuance participation (Al-Debei, Al-Lozi & Papazafeiropoulou, 2013); and entrepreneurial behaviour (Kautonen, Van Gelderen & Tornikoski, 2013).

Intention is seen as a signal of how hard a person is willing to try or how much effort one is planning to exert to ensure the intended behaviour is performed (Ajzen, 1991). The stronger a person’s intention to achieve certain goals or engage in specific behaviours, the higher the likelihood that the behaviour will be performed (Ajzen, 1989).

As mentioned before, vast levels of intention-related research have been conducted. A substantial portion of such studies have focused on, referred to, or acknowledged the relationship between attitude, intention and behaviour (Armitage & Conner, 2001). Many consumer behaviour theories posit that intentions serve as key mediators of the attitude- behaviour relationship (Engel, Blackwell & Kollat, 1978) and that attitudes influence behaviour only through their impact on intentions (Bagozzi, Baumgartner & Yi, 1989). This notion, termed the sufficiency assumption by Bettman (1986), was maintained by Fishbein and Ajzen (2011).

To better understand the link between attitude, intention and behaviour, Fishbein and Ajzen (2011) developed the Theory of Reasoned Action and later extended it into the Theory of Planned Behaviour. Meta-analyses have indicated that these two theories “explain on average between 40 per cent and 50 per cent of the variance in intention, and between 19 per cent and 38 per cent of the variance in behaviour” (Sutton, 1998:1317). Sutton (1998) emphasised that these model performances may seem low when compared with the ideal of 100 per cent, but when judged in relation to typical effect ranges in the behavioural sciences, the performance in terms of variance explained is good.

To comprehend the role and importance of intentions in this study, both these theories will subsequently be discussed. Ajzen (1989) acknowledges the Tri-Component model as another important theory for comprehending attitudes and intentions. In the tri-component model attitude is viewed as a multidimensional construct with three components, namely cognitive, affective and conative (Van den Brink et al., 2006; Hawkins et al., 2001). The Tri- Component model subscribes to the notion that all human behaviour is a combination of mental (think), emotional (feel) and physical (do) dimensions (Asiegbu, Powei & Iruka, 2012).

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However, as the model is generally viewed as attitudinal, it will be delineated along with the attitude construct later in this chapter.

5.4.1 The Theory of Reasoned Action (TORA)

When Fishbein (1979) first introduced the Theory of Reasoned Action (TORA), he expressed his dissatisfaction with the social psychology of attitudes that were prevalent during the 1950s and 1960s. The TORA was developed specifically as an improvement over Information Integration theory (Fishbein & Ajzen, 2011; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1977; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). Information Integration Theory refers to the manner in which a person integrates information from various sources to form an overall judgment (Anderson, 1971). The Theory of Reasoned Action (TORA) differs from the Information Integration Theory in two aspects. Firstly, the TORA includes intention as an additional element in the persuasion process. It attempts to predict behaviour rather than attitudes, as is the case in the Information Integration Theory. However, it separates behavioural intention from behaviour and thereby acknowledges that some factors may limit the influence of attitude on behaviour (Fishbein & Ajzen, 2011; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). Secondly, the TORA includes subjective norms (the expectations of others) in addition to attitudes as predictors of behavioural intent. Fishbein and Ajzen (2011) acknowledge that attitudes may lead a person in a certain direction, while relevant norms may suggest a different course of action. Thus, although the TORA recognises attitude toward a behaviour as a key element of the model, the concept is not held central – as was the case in prior work by Sherif (1979) – but rather viewed within the context of beliefs, intention and behaviour.

In Figure 5.1 the relationships between the different elements of the TORA are evident. Behaviour results are generated by behavioural intent, which in turn is a function of attitude toward the behaviour and perceived social pressure, also called subjective or social norms (Ajzen, Timko & White, 1982).

Attitude toward the behaviour is influenced by an individual’s beliefs that the behaviour will result in certain outcomes and by an evaluation of the outcomes per se. The underlying factors that are likely to influence subjective norms include the normative beliefs and individual attributes to relevant others (i.e. the individual’s beliefs that specific referents think a specific behaviour should be performed) and the individual’s motivation to comply with each of the relevant others (Schiffman & Kanuk, 2015).

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In the case of CARE, the desired behaviour can include purchasing a cause-linked product. Interpreting the TORA for this scenario means that the purchase behaviour will result from an intention to purchase the cause-linked product. A favourable attitude toward the behaviour of purchasing a cause-linked product and supporting social norms will positively influence the individual’s behavioural intention. A favourable attitude toward purchasing a cause-linked product will, furthermore, depend on whether the individual believes that the purchasing behaviour will lead to specific outcomes, e.g. a substantial donation to an NPO, and whether the outcome (i.e. the donation) is auspiciously evaluated. In terms of subjective norms, the individual may have been raised in a household where the value of giving to others and respecting elders were reinforced as key principles. Therefore the individual may believe that his/her parents will support the purchase of cause-linked products and he/she may be motivated to comply with the views of the parents.

Figure 5.1

The theory of reasoned action (TORA)

Source: Adapted from Schiffman and Kanuk (2015)

The TORA assumes that “most human social behaviour is under volitional control and, hence, can be predicted from intentions alone” (Ajzen, 2002:666). However, the aspect of complete volitional control has been questioned and as a result the Theory of Planned Behaviour was developed.

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