SIGNOS DE PUNTUACIÓN 11 5.1 COMA
5.14 EMPLEO DE LETRAS MAYÚSCULAS Y OTRAS COSAS SOBRE ÉSTAS
The sustainability is typically measured in three Ps or three Es viz. People, Planet, and Prosperity or Equity, Environment, and Economy. This research has relevance to all the three pillars/legs of sustainability. The detailed discussion is as follows:
• Prosperity/Economy: The EFs determined in this research are helpful to derive sustainability costs. Typically, for any industry, life-cycle costs include direct, indirect, and societal costs.
o Direct costs: The direct costs of an industry include material and labor costs. The
EFs developed in this research can help in design changes and/or by choosing the right designs for an industry that pollute less and avoid incurring additional costs on air control devices or ventilation systems.
o Indirect costs: The indirect costs include pollution prevention costs and fees paid
to the environmental regulatory agencies. The EFs help in determining the emission quantities and help the industry to choose appropriate pollution control devices and avoid paying additional costs.
o Societal costs: The societal costs include worker/public health costs, health
insurance paid for workers’, etc. This research help in choosing the right pollution control devices that help to prevent exposure from the pollutants that lead to adverse health effects on workers’ as well as the public, this avoids worker/public health costs. Also, this research will evaluate cancer and non-cancer risks associated with the emissions of heavy metals from the GMAW; this can help industries to avoid any lawsuits or health costs against them.
• Planet/Environment: The EFs developed can help in quantifying the emissions associated with the process and helps in making appropriate decisions on controlling the air pollution (e.g., installation of air pollution control devices), thus reducing the environmental burden on the planet.
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• People/Equity: As discussed earlier, the EFs can help in choosing the appropriate air pollution control devices that reduce the pollutant exposure to the workers’ as well as the public, thus preventing the people from getting exposed to dangerous air toxics that leads to adverse health effects and sometimes even death.
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6.
Conclusions
This research generated emission factors that are critical for understanding and managing welding emissions from various industrial activities. Regulatory agencies can develop rational air permits while the industry owners can monitor their emissions in order to minimize or eliminate health risks to the welders / co-workers as well as the common public that live in the impacted zone. The methodology demonstrated in this study can be utilized by other researchers to quickly generate additional welding emissions data for numerous welding processes and process conditions. Emission factors evaluated can also be utilized to estimate exposure to hazardous air pollutants and compute cancer and non-cancer health risks precisely.
6.1 Summary
• Current and voltage are found to be the most influencing parameters in the formation of
fumes in GMAW.
• The ANOVA analysis of MS FFR data indicate current, voltage, shielding gas, welding
speed, CTWD have a significant effect on FFR.
• The ANOVA analysis on SS FFR data indicate current, voltage, shielding gas, welding
speed have a significant effect on FFR.
• The total fume EFs for MS range between 3.29 and 10.22 g/kg of electrode; SS range
between 0.75 and 2.99 g/kg of electrode. The EFs found in this research are close to the USEPA and other literature values.
• The heavy metal EFs found for MS and SS are well in line with the USEPA EFs. The heavy
metal emission rate results indicate that there is more influence of current than the voltage in the formation of metals in the fumes.
• The mild steel welding emitted more fumes compared to stainless steel. However, the
stainless steel fumes comprised of more carcinogens such as chromium and nickel that have adverse health effects.
• There is a significant linear relationship found between ICP & XRF results. Thus, the low-
cost method of metal analysis employing portable XRF analyzer can be used to quantify the heavy metals in welding fumes. However, the XRF is not able to detect the heavy metals in very smaller quantities (the LODs of XRF are higher than the ICP).
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• The lifetime cancer and non-cancer risks are evaluated for the research data. The cancer
risk probabilities from the SS welding indicate this process has a high potential to emit carcinogens that can pose deleterious effects on human health. Based on the individual heavy metal cancer risk probability calculations in this research, the heavy metals are ranked as below in causing cancer:
o Hexavalent chromium
o Nickel
o Lead
• The lifetime non-cancer risks computed in this research for most scenarios are higher than
the safe limit, thus posing critical health risks on various organs.
• Based on lifetime cancer and non-cancer risks computed in this research, it is
recommended that a welder wear personal protective equipment and the use of engineering controls, LEVs, etc. to reduce the welding fume exposure to avoid any potential health risks. It is recommended to avoid welding in confined spaces where fume concentration can reach higher levels. Robotic welding may be utilized to prevent worker exposures. When robotic welding is not feasible, confined spaces must be well ventilated while protecting welder with additional personal protective equipment.
6.2 Limitations
•
A limited number of experiments are performed due to lack of funding and other resources.•
Only two levels of each operating parameter (current, voltage, shielding gas, weldingspeed, CTWD) are used in this research because of budget constraints.
•
The metal transfer modes in the GMAW are not investigated due to lack of suitable99
6.3 Future Recommendations
• The particle size distribution of the welding fumes is recommended for future researchers
to see the variation in the particle sizes with changes in operating parameters in the GMAW.
• The heavy metal emissions within various particle size ranges in the fumes have to be
investigated.
• More levels of various operating parameters have to be investigated to see the variation in
the fume formation process.
• Future researchers can accelerate data collection using low cost, XRF analyzer to fill many
data gaps that exist in welding emission inventories.
• The influence of the shielding gas flow rate in fume formation is recommended for future
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7.
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