Entidades que Fomentan el Sector Panelero

According to Taylor (1995) gender-power inequalities (i.e. male dominance and female subordination) in sexual relationships manifest themselves in a number of ways. In this thesis, gender-power refers to power imbalances in adolescent dating and romantic relationships based on views on masculinity and femininity that may hinder or facilitate adolescents’ help-seeking.

The data revealed that power relations resulting from gender norms affect male and females through different mechanisms, which primarily hinders help seeking behaviour. For example, some girls may not identify a SRH matter as a concern if their male partner does not view the matter as a concern. Through use of the stimulus materials, adolescents explained that unprotected sexual intercourse and physical abuse was sometimes not viewed as a SRH concern among girls, because it was not a concern for their male partner. However, not all adolescents perceived it as a form of power and control; it was sometimes perceived as a sign of love in the dating or romantic relationship (section 5.2.1). According to adolescent participants, when some boys were unable to control girls’ identification of SRH concerns or help-seeking, such as the need to use condoms during sexual intercourse, they found other ways to exert their power, such as providing defective condoms (section 5.2.1). This is consistent with the following key informant’s perception that when girls challenge their male partners there may be consequences:

She doesn’t do the right thing she should get a few thumps….But that is highly perpetrated because girls do some cheating too and the only way the boys could respond to deal he have to give her a few slap, and some of the girls accept it too. So that kind of perpetuates it a little...so it’s a degree of acceptance....Because it happens, it happens still.

(Key Informant 1, HCCS)

According to the above excerpt, physical abuse “a few thumps” is one of the ways that boys know to control girls. Participants explained that because adolescents are exposed to physical abuse at home and among others within their communities, including peers it is difficult to identify it as a concern warranting help. This is highlighted by the following key informant:

Young people don’t see that okay, if I’m in a relationship with this guy, and whatever happens and he slaps me they don’t see it as a sign of bad things

to come or more to come. What they see it as a one-time incident, so the person apologizes and they just accept that.

(Key Informant 2, IE) In chapter 5, most female adolescents’ discussed that they would not seek help for physical abuse, because they could deal with it on their own, either by fighting back or running away However, some girls were able to identify sources for advice and counselling (section7.3.2).

Girls were concerned about their reputation (section 6.4) and therefore, did not want to seek help. By fighting back girls may view themselves as empowered, rather than powerless in the relationship. In contrast, one male adolescent, 18-year old Shaka discussed that he would not seek help because being male helpers would not take his situation seriously:

I don’t think the court will take it serious if ah female hits ah male, but if is the other way around you in for some serious troubles. It all comes under domestic violence, but they take it more serious if ah male hits the females.

(Adolescent Male, UCI9) The above excerpt suggests that although physical abuse is also perpetrated by males, help is perceived as targeted toward females only, which Shaka believes would discourage he and other boys from seeking help for physical abuse. This has implications for the Child Protection and Adoption Act and the Child Abuse Protocol (section 4.2.3) to ensure that provisions are made for the protection of boys. Additionally, some adolescents may identify a SRH concern but not a need to seek help, or may delay help-seeking because of unequal gender-power relations. For example, 16-year old adolescent mother Carmen, who became pregnant during her sexual debut, identified unprotected sex as a concern, but did not seek help because her boyfriend who was older convinced her that they did not need to use one. Also, part of the reason Linda delayed seeking help after she was sexually abused by her stepfather is because at the time, she was residing in his house together with her mother and brother. Therefore, she was worried that by seeking help, she would be the reason for additional conflict in the home, or that her family would be left homeless. This is consistent with key informants’

reports suggesting that identifying concerns, need for help and help-seeking for sexual abuse was hindered when the perpetrator is a boyfriend, someone the adolescent is dating or a family member, and is facilitated when the perpetrator is outside this group. This is highlighted in the following key informant excerpt:

You may find a bit or two of incidence of probably date rape I would say, not regular, but we have had incidence of children reporting that. But what is sad about it is that they do not see it as rape, because I went with him and he is my boyfriend, I just was not ready for that….So I’ve had a bit of sessions with young people, college level, and when I told them of date rape and it can happen, it’s when one or two of them began to think probably it happened to me. But because they knew the person and they went to the person… they saw yes, the person forced it on them but they felt they were to blame sort of, because that’s their friend and that’s the person they went to movies with it’s just that they didn’t cater for movies and something else.

(Key Informant 2, IE) Based on the findings, gender-power relations hinder identification of the SRH concern, need for help and help-seeking. In some cases, girls may not feel empowered to identify their SRH concern unless it is first identified by their male partner. In other cases, some girls may identify their SRH concern but not feel empowered to seek help. However, girls may perceive that coping alone is tantamount to being empowered or autonomous, or they may be embarrassed to seek help. However, girls’ blaming themselves for causing the concern was also found to hinder help-seeking behaviour. Regarding dating violence, boys’ perception that helpers would not take their situation as serious if help is sought was a barrier to help-seeking.

6.6 Chapter Summary

In this chapter, the socio-cultural contextual factors influencing ASRH help-seeking behaviour was explained as a complex interaction of: sexuality communication; community social support; social stigma; and gender-power relations, which affects all stages of the help-seeking pathways. Table 6-1, provides an overview of the relationship between the socio-cultural contextual determinants and the help-seeking pathway. The former two determinants included both barriers and facilitators of help-seeking, and the latter two comprised of primarily barriers to ASRH help-seeking. Additionally, some factors were more influential among males than females and vice versa. A bi-direction relationship was discussed between stigma and help-seeking, in which stigma hindered help-seeking and help-seeking resulted in stigma. The chapter also alluded to interrelationships between the socio-cultural context and the programmatic context. The programmatic contextual factors influencing ASRH help-seeking behaviour are discussed in-depth in Chapter 7.

Table 6-1 Relationship between socio-cultural determinants and help-seeking pathways Stages of the help-seeking pathway Socio-cultural determinants

Stage 1: Identification of SRH concern Sexuality communication;

Community social support;

Social stigma;

Gender-power relations Stage 2: Identification of the need for help Sexuality communication;

Community social support;

Social stigma;

Gender-power relations Stage 3: Help-seeking and Source of help Sexuality communication;

Community social support;

Social stigma;

Gender-power relations Stage 4: Assessment of help-seeking Sexuality communication;

Community social support;

Social stigma;

Gender-power relations