EQUIPAMENTO MUNICIPAL.

In order to precipitate the devotional journey of pilgrims towards participation in the sacraments and prayer, Gregory XIII had the four main basilicas of Rome repaired and refurbished. ‘E per invitare i Cardinali a restaurare, e adornare le Chiese de’Titoli loro, ordinò, che in tutte le Basiliche principali si andasse accomodando tutto quello, che fosse necessario, ed opportuno, e che si rifacesse Il Portico di S. Pietro, e quello di S. Maria Maggiore.’116 Of all the churches decorated and restored the most significant intervention made by Gregory XIII was his patronage of San Giovanni in Laterano.

i) San Giovanni in Laterano

This basilica was built by Constantine and according to Thurston, the original church was small and unadorned except for a mosaic of Christ the Saviour, to whom the Basilica was dedicated. Overtime, John the Baptist and John the Evangelist were added to the dedication, probably because the neighbouring monastery was dedicated to these saints.117

San Giovanni in Laterano was the principal seat of the pope as bishop of Rome, and was officially confirmed as such in 1569, by Pius V.118 Men, women, and children were baptised here twice a year on the eves of Easter and Whitsuntide at the same place where, according to tradition, Constantine was baptised, as documented by Gregory XIII on the vault of the Galleria delle Carte Geografiche.

116 _{Maffei, 1742, p.107.} 117

Thurston, 1900, p.173.

118

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A comprehensive restoration of the Lateran had been initiated by Pius IV but was interrupted by his death.119 This had included the north transept façade and a new ceiling in the nave. Only portions were brought to completion by Pius V but it seems that Gregory XIII was keen to pursue Pius IV’s project. Gregory XIII’s own plan to restore the entire Lateran complex was not achieved during his pontificate and many of his innovations were lost through later renovations. He did however set out a model for his successors namely Sixtus V (1585-1590) and Clement VIII (1592-1605).120 What he did achieve during the years 1573-1575 in preparation for the Holy Year is documented by Jack Freiberg.

Gregory XIII patronised a street system around the Lateran which facilitated easy access to the main pilgrimage basilicas, including the Lateran, as mentioned. He then focused on the restoration of the baptistery as a symbol of redemption mirroring the Plenary Indulgence granted during the Holy Year, which was recognised as such by contemporary commentators such as Gregory Martin.121 The superintendent of the works on the Baptistery project was Francesco Capriani da Volterra (c1535-1595).122 First to be addressed was the circulation of visitors. Gregory XIII had a new axis of entry and exit established in the baptistery that made it easier to enter the baptistery on approach from the south side and the exit facing the basilica (Fig. 2.25). The interior of the building was also restored. Ciappi indicates that ‘Adornò il Battesimo di Costantino di soffitti, pitture, balausti, e altri ornamenti…’.123 He repaired the wooden ceiling of the ambulatory, put in new windows, and frescoed areas of the walls where there was an absence of marble revetment, and the drum of the cupola was frescoed with Gregory XIII’s insignia.124 According to Freiberg, Gregory XIII also moved Constantine’s baptismal vessel into the centre of the baptistery and surrounded it with a balustrade (Fig. 2.26). There is a papal insignia on this balustrade, and there is an inscription attesting to Gregory XIII’s

119 _{Freiberg, 1991, p.67.} 120 _{Ibid., pp.83-84.} 121 _{Martin 1969, p.202.} 122 _{Freiberg, 1991, p.71.} 123 Ciappi, 1596, p.9. 124 Freiberg, 1991, p.72.

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restoration reading, GREGORIUS XIII PONT. MAX. RESTAURAVIT AN. IUBILEI MDLXXV, above the entrance to the Baptistery.125 In 1573, a fresco of the Madonna located in the seventh-century side chapel of the baptistery began to work miracles. The revision of the entrance and exit to the baptistery required that this miraculous fresco be moved, and Gregory XIII had the little chapel renovated in her honour. The fresco was situated in an altar elevated above four steps, and crowned by a columned ciborium. Freiberg documents an engraving of the chapel made in c1610, which shows two angels parting a domed canopy to reveal the image of the Madonna (Fig. 2.28).126 A new wooden ceiling with a relief of the Madonna seated on a cloud surrounded by stars was also installed. Gregory XIII went on to shower the chapel with a myriad of liturgical vessels of silver and gold expressive of Gregory XIII’s deep felt devotion to the Madonna.127 The Baptistery was ready anew to encourage devotion and participation in the sacrament of Baptism during and beyond the Jubilee. This act of patronage consolidated the association of Baptism and the Holy Year and Baptism as an act of Redemption and Salvation. It also honoured the image of the Madonna by re-imagining and extending the magnificence of her miraculous power through the magnificence of her new chapel.

Gregory XIII commissioned a Sacrament Chapel in the main basilica, recalling the Basilica’s primary dedication to Christ and the role played by the Lateran in the history of the Eucharist (Fig. 2.29). It was at the Lateran Council IV 1215, that the first official use of the term transubstantiation occurred, Transsubstantiatis pane in corpus et vino in sanguine.128 ‘His body and blood are truly contained in the sacrament of the altar under the forms of bread and wine, the bread and wine having been changed in substance, by God’s power, into his body and blood, so in order to receive this mystery of unity we receive from God what he received from us.’129 This sacramental chapel was later

125 _{Marcello Fagiolo and Maria Luisa Madonna (eds), Roma. La città degli anni santi 1300-1875, Atlante,}

Mondadori, 1985, Milan, p.185. 126 _{Freiberg, 1991, p.76.} 127 _{Ciappi,1596, p.95.} 128 Hughes, 1961, p. 187. 129 Tanner, 1990, p. 230.

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destroyed by Clement VIII but it was is recorded in a sketch engraved for Ciappi’s book in which he notes that Gregory XIII had la Cappella del Santissimo Sacramento, ornate di colonne, marmi fini e stucchi Dorati.130 It is noticeable that the polychrome marble of this chapel was also used in the Cappella Gregoriana in St. Peter’s Basilica and Laureti’s depiction of the ‘Christian Triumph over Idolatry’, all commissioned by Gregory XIII and all evoking the same wonder in splendour and colour of the materials signifying the magnificence within. The use of such materials was to become Gregory XIII’s papal signature for iconographic purposes. The Sacramental Chapel was positioned prominently, visible to all who entered the basilica, inviting participation in the sacrament. It is observed that the Council of Lateran IV decreed it obligatory for all Christians to communicant at Easter. This is reflected in the shape of Gregory XIII’s patronage of the calendar recognising the necessity of establishing a universal date for Easter and his commissions in the Lateran. ‘... Let them reverently receive the sacrament of the Eucharist at least at Easter unless they think, for good reason and on the advice of their own priest that they should abstain from receiving it for a time. Otherwise they shall be barred from entering a church during their lifetime and they shall be denied a Christian burial at death.’131

Gregory XIII, in his patronage of this Blessed Sacrament chapel, reasserted the link between the first legally constituted basilica and the first church to publically celebrate the Eucharist. Worshippers could be baptised at Easter or Pentecost and they could also take the sacrament of the Eucharist. He was promoting and facilitating these sacraments in accordance with fundamental Christian doctrine which although confirmed by the Council of Trent cannot be regarded as uniquely Tridentine. Therefore Gregory XIII’s patronage although congruent with the decrees of the Council of Trent cannot be accurately described as being informed by the Council of Trent alone but an assertion of the continuity of doctrine within the Church.

130

Ciappi, 1596, p.9.

131

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A visit to the city of Rome was a longed for opportunity for visitors and pilgrims to behold the sacred bones and relics of the martyrs who died for Christianity. All guide books for pilgrims and visitors documented the number and details of relics to be uniquely found in the city along with the Indulgences that they carried. The relics contained within each church were documented and their importance listed. For example, in the guide book Le cose maravigliose dell’Alma città di Roma the list of relics in San Giovanni in Laterano

include the following: the heads of St. Zachariah, father of John the Baptist, St. Peter and St. Paul, a piece of wood from the true cross, St. Peter’s tooth, hair and clothes of the Virgin Mary, Moses’ and Aaron’s rod, the window through which the Angel Gabriel appeared to the Virgin Mary for the Annunciation, the table of the Last Supper, an image of the Saviour designed by St. Luke and finished by angels, among many other relics.132

Gregory XIII’s patronage of the Lateran included the patronage of the Scala Santa, the main staircase that led to the medieval papal palace (Fig. 2.27).133 The stairs of twenty- eight marble steps was believed to have been brought from Jerusalem by St. Helena, Constantine’s mother, and had been taken from the praetorium of Pontius Pilate, upon which Christ stood when he was condemned to death. As they had come into contact with the body of the Christ they were regarded as a relic of Christ’s passion and as Christ was said to have stained the stairs with his blood this added a Eucharistic significance to them.134 Gregory XIII built two additional staircases allowing penitents to descend without blocking the way of those slowly ascending on their knees while reciting the Pater Noster. It is observed that Gregory XIII’s patronage enhanced the practical usage of the staircase, highlighted the importance of the relic of the Scala Santa, and presented the opportunity for both penance and worship of this relic of Christ (Fig. 2.30).

ii) Santa Maria Maggiore:

It was at the Council of Ephesus, 431, that the title of Mary, Mother of God (Theotokos)

132 _{Francino, Girolamo, Le Cose Maravigliose dell’Alma Città di Roma, Venice, 1588, ff.5-7.} 133

Freiberg, Jack, 1991, p.82.

134

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was defended by Cyril of Alexandria against attacks by Nestorius bishop of Constantinople. The Council precipitated the recognition of the Virgin Mary as Theotokos and Jesus was recognised as having a human and divine nature united in one person.135 After the Council, Sixtus III (432-440) rebuilt this basilica on the Esquiline hill and dedicated it to the Virgin Mary. He had the Church magnificently adorned with mosaics celebrating the honour won for the Virgin Mary at the Council of Ephesus. The church contains many precious relics among which is an Image of our Lady much revered for miracles performed during the time of Gregory the Great, often carried in procession along with the Image of the Saviour from San Giovanni in Laterano.136

Ciappi notes that Gregory XIII ‘Alla Chiesa di S. Maria Maggiore rifece il Portico, fatta già da Eugenio Terzo, che minacciava ruina, e da esso aprì una strada spatiosa, e piana, che dirittamente va a serire il Portico della Chiesa di S. Gio. Laterano.137 The portico of the basilica was restored by Martino Longhi the elder in splendour for the Jubilee celebrations inviting pilgrims into the basilica (Fig. 2.31). This is recorded in a plaque on the external wall of the basilica which reads: GREGORIUS XIII PONT. MAX. EUGENII LABANTEM PORTICUM DEIECIT AC MAGNIFICENTIUS RESTITUIT VAINM

RECTAM AD LATERANUM APERUIT ANNO IUBILEI MDLXXV verifying the

demolition and rebuilding of the portico.

iii) San Paolo fuori le Mura:

While this basilica was not the original site of the martyrdom of St. Paul, his body is entombed there (Fig. 2.32). Constantine had founded the basilica and richly endowed it with gold, silver and precious stones. In the sixteenth century, it was said to hold relics such as the arm of St. Anne, the chains that held St. Paul, the head of the Samaritan, a finger of St. Nicolao, and under the altar half the body of St. Peter and half of St. Paul.

135 _{Tanner, 2011.} 136 Francino, 1588, ff.11. 137 Ciappi, 1596, p.9.

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According to Fagiolo et al, Gregory XIII had the presbytery decorated with pictures and Ciappi notes that he had erected a balustrade of fine marble and porphyry around the tomb of St. Paul, allowing visitors to worship both the Eucharist and the relics of St. Paul.138

iv) The Constantine Basilica.

The Holy year began and ended at the Constantine basilica, and it was visited by pilgrims at the beginning and the end of their journey. This is where Gregory XIII opened the Porta Santa and declared the beginning and end of the Holy Year. Gregory XIII’s patronage of the Constantine Basilica for the Jubilee was modest. He sought to embellish and enhance the basilica artistically and symbolically (Fig. 2.33).

Gregory XIII raised and restored the paving around the main altar of the Apostles. He had six representations of the Apostles added to an existing six to complete the twelve and donated twelve large silver lamps reflective of their presence, to decorate the main altar.139 He also donated precious silk, silver, and gold vestments to the sacristy.140 All of Gregory XIII’s interventions in St. Peter’s basilica embellished the inherent sacredness of the holy site. Gregory XIII had the ceiling of the main portico of the basilica repaired and had antique pictures situated over the five main doors of the basilica substituted with new scenes from the Acts of the Apostles executed by Lorenzo Sabatini, Cesare Nebbia, and Raffaellino da Reggio. The five paintings were as follows: The handing over of the keys, Peter and John enter the temple, Peter and the miracle of the fish, the healing of the sick, and the calling of St. Andrew and St. Peter to Christ.141 These scenes from the Acts of the Apostles emphasise the charge to the Church to minister to its flock and this, at the seat of the papacy, the tomb of St. Peter, is what Gregory XIII sought to fulfil.

138 _{Marcello Fagiolo and Maria Luisa Madonna (eds), 1985, p.193.} 139 _{Ciappi, 1596, p.6.}

140

Maffei, 1742, p.449.

141

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The most significant acts of patronage by Gregory XIII in Rome for the Holy Year of 1575 focused on the success of the sacred pilgrimage to Rome by the many tens of thousands that visited the city. Integral to this process was the opportunity for salvation through the agency of the Church in encouraging worship and facilitating the sacraments. The churches of Rome were presented in all their magnificence and splendour in honour of the sacredness held within and to welcome and accommodate the visiting pilgrims. This was a reassertion of the significance of the Church in the spiritual life of Catholics and in turn the significance of the participation of the laity in the liturgy of the Church. As noted by Maffei, Gregory XIII wanted the pilgrims to return home more steadfast in their worship of the divine, willing to persevere, and with affection towards the Apostolic See.142

2.4.2 The Assertion of the Character of the Papacy in the Apostolic Palaces

Just as the Jubilee celebrations signalled the arrival of visitors to the city, it also signalled the arrival of dignitaries and the Church hierarchy to the Apostolic Palaces in the Vatican. Gregory XIII’s patronage of artistic programmes within the Apostolic Palaces expressed the character and ambition of his papacy and his Church to diverse audiences. The imagery used was powerful and the message clear and appropriate to its audience, indicating a systematic approach to his patronage. The most significant commissions were in the Sala Regia, Sala Bologna, Sala di Concistoro, and the Sale dei Foconi. It was after the Holy year when Gregory XIII consolidated his team of artists and work that he patronised the Cappella Paolina, Cappella Gregoriana, the Galleria delle Carte Geografiche, the Sala Costantino, Torre dei Venti, and the Terza Loggia in the Vatican.

i) Sala Regia:

Gregory XIII’s first commission in the Apostolic Palace was in the Sala Regia (Fig. 2.34).

The Sala Regia or Royal Hall was originally commissioned by Paul III (1534-48). It was conceived as a new audience hall to receive prominent visitors such as ambassadors, kings,

142

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queens, and emperors. Paul III commissioned the architect Antonio da Sangallo (1484- 1546) to construct, and Perino del Vaga (1501-1547) and his team to decorate the room in c1537. By 1548 all three men were dead. It was not until the Pius IV (1559-1565) ascended the throne that interest in the project was revived, but he too died before the project was completed. Pius V (1564-1572) showed little interest in continuing any decorative work on the audience hall until his interest was piqued by the defeat of the Ottoman fleet near Lepanto in October 1571. Pius V interpreted the battle as a turning point in history and commissioned Vasari (1511-1574) to commemorate the victorious battle against the Muslim Turks in three large paintings between the doors of the Sala Regia.143 Vasari had just finished the ‘Battle of Lepanto’ when Pius V died (Fig. 2.35). However, within a month Gregory XIII ordered Vasari to continue his work. Vasari executed six painting in the Sala Regia for Gregory XIII including ‘The Christian and Turkish Fleets on the Eve of the Battle of Lepanto’ continuing Pius V’s theme (Fig. 2.36). In August 1572, news reached Rome that the Protestant Huguenots in Paris had been defeated. Although not a papal victory, Gregory XIII was jubilant, ordered a general jubilee at which the faithful were to thank God for the destruction of the Huguenots and to ask for the restoration of Catholicism to its former purity.144 He was celebrating the destruction of heretics and heresy, an aim promulgated by all popes since the beginning of the Church. A coin was struck, victory over heresy was celebrated, and Vasari was asked to revise the plan from three paintings commemorating Lepanto to two, in order to create space for three paintings showing the Catholic victory over the Protestants in Paris. The